Treatment of Newly Diagnosed Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Adipocytic Tumors
Liposarcoma
Liposarcoma accounts for 3% of soft tissue sarcoma in patients younger than 20 years (refer to Table 1).
Liposarcoma is rare in the pediatric population. In a review of 182 pediatric patients with adult-type sarcomas, only 14 had a diagnosis of liposarcoma.[1] One retrospective study identified 34 patients younger than 22 years from 1960 to 2011.[2] There were roughly equal numbers of male and female patients and the median age was 18 years. In an international clinicopathological review, the characteristics of 82 cases of pediatric liposarcoma were reported.[3] The median age was 15.5 years and females were more commonly affected. In both reports, the great majority of patients had myxoid liposarcoma.[2,3]
Histopathologic classification
The World Health Organization (WHO) classification for liposarcoma is as follows:[4]
- Intermediate (locally aggressive).
- Atypical lipomatous neoplasm/well-differentiated liposarcoma. These tumors do not metastasize unless they undergo dedifferentiation.
- Malignant.
- Dedifferentiated liposarcoma.
- Myxoid liposarcoma. Pure myxoid liposarcomas are characterized by a t(12;16)(q13;p11) translocation and can metastasize but usually have an excellent outcome in the absence of a round cell component.[5]
- Pleomorphic liposarcoma.
- Liposarcoma, not otherwise specified (NOS).
Clinical presentation
Most liposarcomas in the pediatric and adolescent age range are low grade and located subcutaneously. Metastasis to lymph nodes is very uncommon, and the great majority of metastases are pulmonary. Tumors arising in the periphery are more likely to be low grade and myxoid. Tumors arising centrally are more likely to be high grade, pleomorphic, and present with metastasis or recur with metastasis.
Prognosis
Higher grade or central tumors are associated with a significantly higher risk of death. In an international retrospective review, 5-year survival for central tumors was 42%. Seven of ten patients with pleomorphic myxoid liposarcoma died of their disease.[3] In a retrospective study of 14 patients, 5-year survival was 78% and tumor grade, histologic subtype, and primary location correlated with survival.[2]
Treatment
Treatment options for liposarcoma include the following:
- Surgery. If the tumor is not completely removed or locally recurs, a second surgery may be performed.[6,7,8]
- Chemotherapy followed by surgery.
- Surgery preceded or followed by radiation therapy (evidence based on adult studies).[9,10]
Surgery is the most important treatment for liposarcoma. After complete surgical resection of well-differentiated or myxoid liposarcoma, event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) are roughly 90%.[11] If initial surgery is incomplete, re-excision should be performed to achieve a wide margin of resection. Local recurrences have been seen and are controlled with a second resection of the tumor, particularly for low-grade liposarcomas. Radiation therapy is also considered either preoperatively or postoperatively depending on the cosmetic/functional consequences of additional surgery and radiation therapy.[12,13]
There are reports of the use of chemotherapy to decrease the size of liposarcoma before surgery to facilitate complete resection, particularly in central tumors.[14,15] The role of postoperative chemotherapy for liposarcoma is poorly defined. There does not appear to be a need for any postoperative therapy for completely resected myxoid liposarcoma. Even with the use of postoperative chemotherapy, the survival of pleomorphic liposarcoma remains poor.[16]
Trabectedin has produced encouraging responses in adults with advanced myxoid liposarcoma.[17] In one study, adult patients with recurrent liposarcoma and leiomyosarcoma were randomly assigned to treatment with either trabectedin or dacarbazine. Patients treated with trabectedin had a 45% reduction in disease progression.[18][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii] There are very limited data to support the use of trabectedin in pediatric patients.[19]
Treatment with eribulin, a nontaxane microtubule dynamics inhibitor, significantly improved survival in adult patients with recurrent liposarcoma compared with dacarbazine, with a median OS of 15.6 months versus 8.4 months, respectively. Survival differences were more pronounced in patients with dedifferentiated and pleomorphic liposarcoma. Eribulin was effective in prolonging survival of patients with either high-grade or intermediate-grade tumors.[20][Level of evidence: 1iiA] A pediatric phase I trial of eribulin did not accrue any patients with liposarcoma.[21]
Chondro-osseous Tumors
Chondro-osseous tumors include the following subtypes:
- Soft tissue chondroma.
- Extraskeletal mesenchymal chondrosarcoma.
- Extraskeletal osteosarcoma.
Extraskeletal mesenchymal chondrosarcoma
Osseous and chondromatous neoplasms account for 0.8% of soft tissue sarcoma in patients younger than 20 years (refer to Table 1).
Histopathology and molecular features
Mesenchymal chondrosarcoma is a rare tumor characterized by small round cells and hyaline cartilage that more commonly affects young adults and has a predilection for involving the head and neck region.
Mesenchymal chondrosarcoma has been associated with consistent chromosomal rearrangement. A retrospective analysis of cases of mesenchymal chondrosarcoma identified a HEY1-NCOA2 fusion in 10 of 15 tested specimens.[22] This gene fusion was not associated with chromosomal changes that could be detected by karyotyping. In one instance, translocation t(1;5)(q42;q32) was identified in a case of mesenchymal chondrosarcoma and shown to be associated with a novel IRF2BP-CDX1 fusion gene.[23]
Prognosis
A retrospective survey of European institutions identified 113 children and adults with mesenchymal chondrosarcoma. Factors associated with better outcome included the following:[24][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]
- Lack of metastatic disease at initial presentation.
- Clear resection margins.
- Administration of postoperative chemotherapy after resection for patients with initially localized disease.
A retrospective analysis of Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) data from 1973 to 2011 identified 205 patients with mesenchymal chondrosarcoma; 82 patients had skeletal primary tumors, and 123 patients had extraskeletal tumors.[25] The outcomes of skeletal and extraskeletal primary tumors were the same. Factors associated with outcome included the following:
- Primary site: 5-year OS was 50% for appendicular tumors, 37% for axial tumors, and 74% for cranial tumors.
- Metastases and tumor size: Presence of metastatic disease and larger tumor size were independently associated with an increased risk of death.
A single-institution retrospective review identified 43 cases of mesenchymal chondrosarcoma from 1979 to 2010.[26] Thirty patients with localized disease were evaluated. The mean age at diagnosis was 33 years (range, 11–65 years). Five-year OS was 51%, and 10-year OS was 37%. Younger age (<30 years) and male sex were associated with poorer OS and disease-free survival (DFS). Patients who did not receive adjuvant radiation therapy were more likely to have a local recurrence.
Treatment
Treatment options for extraskeletal mesenchymal chondrosarcoma include the following:
- Surgery. If the tumor is not completely removed, radiation therapy may also be given.
- Surgery preceded or followed by radiation therapy.[9,10]
- Chemotherapy followed by surgery and additional chemotherapy. Radiation therapy may also be given.
A review of 15 patients younger than 26 years from the German Cooperative Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group (11 with soft-tissue lesions) and the German-Austrian-Swiss Cooperative Osteosarcoma Study Group (four with primary bone lesions) protocols suggests that complete surgical removal, or incomplete resection followed by radiation therapy, is necessary for local control.[27][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
A single-institution, retrospective review identified 12 pediatric patients with mesenchymal chondrosarcoma.[28] The presence of the NCOA2 rearrangement in tumors was documented in these patients. It was also confirmed that surgical resection is necessary for cure. Eleven patients presented with localized disease and one presented with pulmonary nodules. All patients received chemotherapy—six patients before and after surgical resection and six patients only after resection. All patients received postoperative chemotherapy (most commonly ifosfamide/doxorubicin) with or without radiation therapy (median dose, 59.4 Gy). At a median follow-up of 4.8 years, 5-year DFS was 68.2% (95% confidence interval [CI], 39.8%–96.6%), and OS was 88.9% (95% CI, 66.9%–100%).
A Japanese study of patients with extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma and mesenchymal chondrosarcoma randomly assigned patients to treatment with either trabectedin or best supportive care.[29] The median age of patients was 38 years (range, 21–77 years). OS of the patients assigned to receive trabectedin was superior to that of patients assigned to receive best supportive care.
Extraskeletal osteosarcoma
Osseous and chondromatous neoplasms account for 0.8% of soft tissue sarcomas in patients younger than 20 years (refer to Table 1).
Extraskeletal osteosarcoma is extremely rare in the pediatric and adolescent age range. An analysis of SEER data identified 256 patients (6%) with extraskeletal osteosarcoma among 4,173 patients with high-grade osteosarcoma from 1973 to 2009. Compared with skeletal osteosarcoma, patients with extraskeletal osteosarcoma were more likely to be older, female, have an axial primary tumor, and have regional lymph node involvement. Adverse prognostic features included presence of metastatic disease, larger tumor size, older age, and axial primary tumor site.[30]
Molecular features
A review of 32 adult patients with extraskeletal osteosarcomas consistently revealed several alterations.[31] Frequent genomic alterations included copy number losses in CDKN2A (70%), TP53 (56%), and RB1 (49%). Mutations were identified that affected methylation/demethylation (40%), chromatin remodeling (27%), and the WNT/SHH pathways (27%). Cases with simultaneous TP53 and RB1 biallelic copy number losses were associated with worse DFS and OS.
Prognosis
Extraskeletal osteosarcoma is associated with a high risk of local recurrence and pulmonary metastasis.[32] A single-institution retrospective review identified 43 patients with extraskeletal osteosarcoma; 37 patients had localized disease, and 6 patients presented with metastatic disease.[33] Median age was 55 years (range, 7–81 years). Median progression-free survival (PFS) was 21 months; median OS was 50 months. Seventy-five percent of patients received chemotherapy. There was a trend toward better survival for patients who received chemotherapy, and a statistically significant improvement in survival for patients who received chemotherapy that included cisplatin.
In a review of 274 patients with a median age of 57 years at diagnosis (range, 12–91 years), 5-year DFS and OS rates were significantly better for those who received chemotherapy, and the use of an osteosarcoma-type regimen was associated with improved response rates.[34][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]
The European Musculoskeletal Oncology Society performed a retrospective analysis of 266 eligible patients with extraskeletal osteosarcoma treated between 1981 and 2014.[34] Fifty patients (19%) presented with metastatic disease. An analysis of the 211 patients who achieved complete remission after surgical resection of the primary tumor showed a 5-year OS of 51% and a 5-year DFS of 43%. There was a favorable trend for survival among patients who were treated with chemotherapy that is usually employed for patients with osseous osteosarcoma. In a multivariable analysis, factors associated with better prognosis included younger age (<40 years), smaller tumors, and use of chemotherapy.
Treatment
Treatment options for extraskeletal osteosarcoma include the following:
- Surgery followed by chemotherapy.[32,33,34]
Typical chemotherapy regimens used for osteosarcoma include some combination of cisplatin, doxorubicin, high-dose methotrexate, and ifosfamide.[32,33,34]
(Refer to the PDQ summary on Osteosarcoma and Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma of Bone Treatment for more information about treatment, including chemotherapy options, of extraosseous osteosarcoma.)
Fibroblastic/Myofibroblastic Tumors
Fibroblastic/myofibroblastic tumors include the following subtypes:
- Fibroblastic/myofibroblastic tumors.
- Intermediate (locally aggressive).
- Palmar/plantar fibromatosis.
- Desmoid-type fibromatosis (previously called desmoid tumor or aggressive fibromatoses).
- Lipofibromatosis.
- Giant cell fibroblastoma.
- Intermediate (rarely metastasizing).
- Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans.
- Solitary fibrous tumor.
- Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor.
- Low-grade myofibroblastic sarcoma.
- Myxoinflammatory fibroblastic sarcoma/atypical myxoinflammatory fibroblastic tumor.
- Infantile fibrosarcoma.
- Malignant.
- Adult fibrosarcoma.
- Myxofibrosarcoma.
- Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma.
- Sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma.
Desmoid-type fibromatosis
Desmoid-type fibromatosis has previously been called desmoid tumors or aggressive fibromatoses.
Risk factors
A small number of desmoid-type fibromatosis tumors may occur in association with a mutation in the APC gene (associated with intestinal polyps and a high incidence of colon cancer). In a study of 519 patients older than 10 years with a diagnosis of desmoid-type fibromatosis, 39 patients (7.5%, a possible underestimation) were found to have familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).[35] The patients with FAP and desmoid-type fibromatosis were younger, more often male, and had more abdominal wall or mesenteric tumors than did patients with desmoid-type fibromatosis without FAP.
A family history of colon cancer, the presence of congenital hyperplasia of the retinal pigment epithelium,[36,37] or location of the desmoid-type fibromatosis in the abdomen or abdominal wall [35] should prompt referral to a genetic counselor. Currently, there are no general recommendations for genetic testing in children with desmoid-type fibromatosis. Pathology and molecular characteristics of the tumor only provide guidance for screening. If the tumor has a somatic CTNNB1 mutation, screening is not necessary, because the APC gene mutation has not been described in this setting. If a CTNNB1 mutation is not identified, screening for the APC mutation may be warranted.[38,39] (Refer to the Familial Adenomatous Polyposis [FAP] section of the PDQ summary on Genetics of Colorectal Cancer for more information.)
Prognosis
Desmoid-type fibromatosis has an extremely low potential to metastasize. The tumors are locally infiltrating, and surgical control can be difficult because of the need to preserve normal structures.
Desmoid-type fibromatosis has a high potential for local recurrence. These tumors have a highly variable natural history, including well documented examples of spontaneous regression.[40] Mutations in exon 3 of the CTNNB1 gene are seen in over 80% of desmoid-type fibromatosis and the mutation 45F has been associated with an increased risk of disease recurrence.[41] Repeated surgical resection can sometimes bring recurrent lesions under control.[42]
Treatment
Evaluation of the benefit of interventions for treatment of desmoid-type fibromatosis has been extremely difficult, because desmoid-type fibromatosis has a highly variable natural history, with partial regressions seen in up to 20% of patients.[43] Large adult series and smaller pediatric series have reported long periods of disease stabilization and even regression without systemic therapy.[42,44]; [45][Level of evidence: 3iiiDi] For instance, in a large placebo-controlled trial of sorafenib in adult patients with desmoid tumor, the patients who received no therapy (observation/placebo) demonstrated a 20% partial regression rate, and 46% of the patients in the placebo group had no progression at 1 year.[43]
Treatment options for desmoid-type fibromatosis include the following:
- Observation. Because of the variable natural history of desmoid tumors, as outlined above, observation is sometimes a viable option. This is particularly the case for asymptomatic lesions, lesions that do not pose a danger to vital organs, and tumors that are incompletely resected.[42,46,47,48,49,50,51,52]
- Of 173 patients with desmoid-type fibromatosis who were treated on European Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Group (EpSSG) studies since 2005, all patients were alive at the time of analysis. Thirteen patients (8%) had biopsies only (no further treatment), 65 patients (42%) received chemotherapy only, 31 patients (20%) underwent surgery only, 36 patients (23%) had both chemotherapy and surgery, and 9 patients (6%) received radiation therapy in addition to other therapies. The authors concluded that the conservative nonsurgical approach did not compromise outcome in pediatric patients.[53][Level of evidence: 3iiiDi]
- The lack of intervention, surgical or otherwise, has been questioned. The Toronto Hospital for Sick Children evaluated the emotional impact on patients with desmoid tumors of continuing to return, on a regular basis, to a cancer center for ongoing CT or MRI scans and follow-up. For individuals with desmoid tumors, higher levels of anxiety were found, even when compared with sarcoma patients, which did not ease with treatment and continued throughout surveillance.[54][Level of evidence: 3iiiC]
- Chemotherapy, for unresectable or recurrent tumors.
- Methotrexate and vinblastine: This combination produced objective responses in about one-third of patients with unresectable or recurrent desmoid-type fibromatosis.[55]
- Doxorubicin and dacarbazine: A series of mainly adult patients with FAP and unresectable desmoid-type fibromatosis that were unresponsive to hormone therapy showed that doxorubicin plus dacarbazine followed by meloxicam (a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug [NSAID]) can be safely administered and can induce responses.[56]
- Pegylated liposomal doxorubicin: Some responses have been reported.[57] In a series of five patients, a median progression-free interval of 29 months was reported.[58]
- Hydroxyurea: A retrospective analysis reported the results of 16 children with previously treated desmoid tumors who were treated with hydroxyurea. Prior to hydroxyurea, seven patients had tumor progression, two patients had increased pain, and seven patients had both. Tumor shrinkage occurred in 37.5% of patients (with 18.7% partial remissions), and symptom improvement occurred in 68.7% of patients.[59]
- Tyrosine kinase inhibitors.
- Sorafenib: An international prospective phase III double-blind study was conducted through the National Clinical Trials Network (NCTN) to evaluate the efficacy of sorafenib in patients with unresectable progressive or symptomatic desmoid tumors. Adult patients were randomly assigned in a 2:1 fashion (sorafenib: placebo); crossover to sorafenib was permitted after disease progression. Eighty-seven patients were enrolled (aged 18–72 years). The objective response rate was 33% (95% CI, 20%–48%) in the sorafenib arm and 20% (95% CI, 8%–38%) in the placebo arm. The median time to objective response was 9.5 months for patients treated with sorafenib and 13.3 months for patients who received the placebo. The 2-year PFS rate was 81% for patients treated with sorafenib, compared with 36% for patients who received the placebo.[43][Level of evidence: 1iDiii]
- Pazopanib: A small series reported symptomatic improvement and stable disease in seven patients with desmoid-type fibromatosis who were treated with pazopanib.[60] A randomized noncomparative study in adults with desmoid tumors treated patients with either pazopanib or methotrexate/vinblastine. About 84% of the patients who received pazopanib had no progression at 6 months.[61]
- NSAIDs. NSAIDs such as sulindac have been used in single cases for desmoid-type fibromatosis; the responses seen were usually disease stabilization.[62]
- Antiestrogen treatment. Antiestrogen treatment, usually tamoxifen, plus sulindac has also resulted in disease stabilization.[63] A prospective trial of the combination of tamoxifen and sulindac reported few side effects, although asymptomatic ovarian cysts were common in girls. This combination showed relatively little activity, as measured by rates of response and PFS.[64][Level of evidence: 2Diii]
- Surgery. If surgery is chosen, the intent is to achieve clear margins. However, a retrospective review of children who underwent surgery for desmoid-type fibromatosis at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital (SJCRH) reported no correlation between surgical margins and risk of recurrence.[52]
- Surgical resection should be used judiciously in patients with desmoid tumors because spontaneous regression can occur in 30% to 40% of cases. Surgical resection is recommended when tumor enlargement threatens the airway or when symptoms such as pain are persistent. In other non–life-threatening locations, surgical resection should be reserved for areas where form or function will not be compromised as a result of the resection.
- Radiation therapy.
- Radiation has been used for unresectable and symptomatic desmoid-type fibromatosis or postoperatively for tumors with inadequate resections if progression would have morbid consequences. The potential long-term complications of radiation therapy, especially subsequent neoplasms, make this modality less appealing in a young population.[65]
- Postoperative radiation therapy can be considered when recurrence or progression would entail additional surgery that might cause functional or cosmetic compromise and if radiation is considered acceptable in terms of morbidities.
- NOTCH pathway inhibitor.
- The NOTCH pathway has been implicated in the development of desmoid tumors.[66] Partial responses to the gamma secretase inhibitor PF-03084014 have been noted in adults with desmoid-type fibromatosis.[67][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]
Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans
Dermatofibrosarcoma is a rare tumor that can be present in all age groups, but many of the reported cases arise in children.[68,69,70] A review of 451 cases in children younger than 20 years in the SEER database found that the incidence was 1 case per 1 million, highest among black patients aged 15 to 19 years. The most common sites were trunk and extremities, which is similar to what is found in adults. Ninety-five percent of patients underwent surgery. OS was 100% at 5 years, 98% at 15 years, and 97% at 30 years. Males had decreased survival compared with females (P < .05).[71][Level of evidence: 3iA]
Molecular features
The tumor has a consistent chromosomal translocation t(17;22)(q22;q13) that juxtaposes the COL1A1 gene with the PDGFRB gene.
Treatment
Treatment options for dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans include the following:
- Surgery.
- Surgery preceded or followed by radiation therapy.
- Radiation therapy and imatinib therapy, for unresectable or recurrent tumors.
Most dermatofibrosarcoma tumors can be cured by complete surgical resection. Wide excision with negative margins or Mohs/modified-Mohs surgery will prevent most tumors from recurring.[72] Despite the locally aggressive behavior of the tumor, lymph node or visceral metastasis rarely occurs.
In retrospective reviews, postoperative radiation therapy after incomplete excision may have decreased the likelihood of recurrence.[73,74]
When surgical resection cannot be accomplished or the tumor is recurrent, treatment with imatinib has been effective.[75,76,77] Because metastatic disease is more likely after multiple recurrences, radiation or other adjuvant therapy should be considered in patients with recurrence that cannot be managed surgically.[69,71]
Guidelines for workup and management of dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans have been published.[78]
Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor
Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor is a rare mesenchymal tumor that has a predilection for children and adolescents.[79,80,81]
Clinical presentation
Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors are rare tumors that affect soft tissues and visceral organs of children and young adults.[82] They rarely metastasize but tend to be locally invasive. Usual anatomical sites of disease include soft tissue, lungs, spleen, colon, and breast.[79] A review of 42 cases of pediatric inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor of the bladder was published in 2015.[83]
Molecular features
Roughly one-half of inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors exhibit a clonal mutation that activates the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK)-receptor tyrosine kinase gene at chromosome 2p23.[84]ROS1 and PDGFRB kinase fusions have been identified in 8 of 11 cases (73%) who are negative for ALK by immunohistochemistry.[85][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]
Prognosis
Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor recurs frequently but is rarely metastatic.[79,80,81]
Treatment
Treatment options for inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor include the following:
- Surgery.
- Chemotherapy.
- Steroid therapy.
- NSAID therapy.
- Targeted therapy (ALK inhibitors).
Complete surgical removal, when feasible, is the mainstay of therapy.[86] In a series of nine patients, four patients achieved continuous remission after complete resection, three patients with residual disease recurred but later achieved continuous remission, and one patient with metastatic disease responded to multiagent chemotherapy.[87][Level of evidence: 3iiA] The benefit of chemotherapy has been noted in case reports.[88] A review of German studies identified 37 patients younger than 21 years with inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors.[89][Level of evidence: 3iiA] The overall 5-year EFS rate was 75%, and the OS rate was 91%. Of 20 patients, 17 had complete resections with no recurrences. All other patients were treated with a combination of surgery and various chemotherapy regimens. Surgical resections can be limited to those procedures that preserve form and function.
There are case reports of response to either steroids or NSAIDs.[90,91] A series of 32 patients aged 18 years and younger found that complete excision was the mainstay of therapy, although some patients were treated with steroids or cytotoxic chemotherapy. OS was 94%; three patients relapsed, and two of them died of the disease. When complete excision was performed, with or without other treatments such as steroids, there was a high survival rate for patients with this disease.[92][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors respond to ALK inhibitor therapy, as follows:
- Crizotinib: Two adults with ALK-rearranged inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor achieved partial response with crizotinib.[93][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] For pediatric patients with measurable disease, the use of crizotinib achieved partial tumor responses in three of six patients with ALK-translocated inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors.[94] A case report of a patient aged 16 years with metastatic/multifocal ALK-positive inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor demonstrated a complete response and a 3-year disease-free interval with crizotinib therapy.[95] Finally, one study included 14 patients with inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors who were treated with crizotinib. With crizotinib therapy, five patients had a complete response, seven had a partial response, and the remaining two had stable disease; no patient had relapsed at the time the article was published.[96][Level of evidence: 3iiDiv]
- Ceritinib: In a phase I trial of ceritinib for adult patients previously treated with ALK inhibitors, one patient with inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor had a partial response.[97] Two pediatric patients enrolled in a clinical trial responded to treatment with ceritinib; one patient had a complete response that was durable for multiple years on continuing therapy, and one patient had a partial response when the drug was discontinued for severe liver and renal toxicity.[98]
Infantile fibrosarcoma
There are two distinct types of fibrosarcoma in children and adolescents: infantile fibrosarcoma (also called congenital fibrosarcoma) and fibrosarcoma that is indistinguishable from fibrosarcoma seen in adults. These are two distinct pathologic diagnoses and require different treatments. Adult fibrosarcoma is addressed below.
Clinical presentation
Infantile fibrosarcoma usually presents with a rapidly growing mass, often noted at birth or even seen in prenatal ultrasound. The tumors are frequently quite large at the time of presentation.[99] Hypercalcemia secondary to elevated levels of parathyroid hormone–related protein has been reported as a presenting feature of this disease in newborns.[100]
Molecular features
The tumor usually has a characteristic cytogenetic translocation t(12;15)(ETV-NTRK3). Infantile fibrosarcoma shares this translocation and a virtually identical histologic appearance with mesoblastic nephroma.
Infantile fibrosarcoma usually occurs in children younger than 1 year. It occasionally occurs in children up to age 4 years. A tumor with similar morphology has been identified in older children; in these older children, the tumors do not have the t(12;15)(ETV-NTRK3) translocation that is characteristic of the younger patients.[101]BRAF intragenic deletions have been described in cases of infantile fibrosarcoma and co-occur with NTRK3 fusions.[102]
Prognosis
These tumors have a low incidence of metastases at diagnosis.
Treatment
Treatment options for infantile fibrosarcoma include the following:
- Surgery followed by observation.
- Surgery followed by chemotherapy.
- Chemotherapy followed by surgery.
- Targeted therapy.
Complete resection is curative in most patients with infantile fibrosarcoma. However, the large size of the lesion frequently makes resection without major functional consequences impossible. For instance, tumors of the extremities often require amputation for complete excision. The European pediatric group has reported that observation may also be an option in patients with group II disease after surgery.[103] Twelve patients with group II disease received no further therapy and two patients relapsed. One patient obtained a complete remission after chemotherapy. Postoperative chemotherapy was administered to patients with higher group disease and those who progressed. In a subsequent study, only one of seven patients with group II disease progressed during observation; that patient achieved complete remission with chemotherapy.[104][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
Preoperative chemotherapy has made a more conservative surgical approach possible; agents active in this setting include vincristine, dactinomycin, cyclophosphamide, and ifosfamide.[105,106]; [104,107][Level of evidence: 3iiA]; [108][Level of evidence: 3iiB] Three studies of patients with infantile fibrosarcoma suggest that an alkylator-free regimen is effective and should be used as the first treatment choice in patients with macroscopic disease.[103,104,109]
Two cases with variant LMNA-NTRK1 fusions responded to crizotinib.[110,111]
In a phase I/II trial of larotrectinib—an oral ATP-competitive inhibitor of TRK A, B, and C—durable objective responses were seen in all eight patients with recurrent infantile fibrosarcoma who harbored an NTRK fusion. Three of five patients who achieved a partial response after neoadjuvant larotrectinib underwent a complete surgical resection with negative margins and achieved an excellent pathologic response (>98% treatment effect) and remained disease free 7 to 15 months after surgery.[112,113]; [114][Level of evidence: 3iiD] One of eight patients in this trial with an ETV6-NTRK3–rearranged infantile fibrosarcoma developed progressive disease after 8 months of larotrectinib therapy and was found to have a G623R acquired resistance mutation. The patient was treated with LOXO-195, a selective TRK inhibitor designed to overcome acquired resistance mediated by recurrent kinase domain mutations, and experienced a transient partial response.[115] Pediatric-specific pharmacokinetics and toxicities of larotrectinib were described in a phase I pediatric trial.[116]
A patient aged 2 months with infantile fibrosarcoma was initially treated with chemotherapy. At disease progression, a response was seen with pazopanib.[117]
A rare case of spontaneous regression without treatment has been reported.[118][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]
Treatment options under clinical evaluation
Information about NCI-supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following are examples of national and/or institutional clinical trials that are currently being conducted:
- APEC1621 (NCT03155620) (Pediatric MATCH: Targeted Therapy Directed by Genetic Testing in Treating Pediatric Patients with Relapsed or Refractory Advanced Solid Tumors, Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas, or Histiocytic Disorders): NCI-COG Pediatric Molecular Analysis for Therapeutic Choice (MATCH), referred to as Pediatric MATCH, will match targeted agents with specific molecular changes identified using a next-generation sequencing targeted assay of more than 4,000 different mutations across more than 160 genes in refractory and recurrent solid tumors. Children and adolescents aged 1 to 21 years are eligible for the trial.
Tumor tissue from progressive or recurrent disease must be available for molecular characterization. Patients with tumors that have molecular variants addressed by treatment arms included in the trial will be offered treatment on Pediatric MATCH. Additional information can be obtained on the NCI website and ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The phase II subprotocol is evaluating LOXO-101 (larotrectinib) in patients with tumors harboring actionable NTRK fusions.
- LOXO-TRK-15003 (NCT02637687) (Oral TRK Inhibitor LOXO-101 for Treatment of Advanced Pediatric Solid or Primary Central Nervous System [CNS] Tumors): A phase I trial of the pan-TRK inhibitor LOXO-101 is being conducted for children with solid tumors or brain tumors whose disease has progressed or was nonresponsive to available therapies, and for which no standard or available curative therapy exists. LOXO-101 is a highly selective inhibitor of all three TRK family kinases.
- RXDX-101-03 (NCT02650401) (Study of RXDX-101 in Children With Recurrent or Refractory Solid Tumors and Primary CNS Tumors, With or Without TRK, ROS1, or ALK Fusions): This is a five-part, open-label, phase I/Ib, multicenter, dose-escalation study in pediatric patients with relapsed or refractory solid tumors; primary CNS tumors; neuroblastoma; non-neuroblastoma, extracranial solid tumors with NTRK1/2/3, ROS1, or ALK gene rearrangements; and patients who are otherwise eligible but unable to swallow capsules. The study is designed to explore the safety, maximum tolerated dose or recommended phase II dose, pharmacokinetics, and antitumor activity of entrectinib (RXDX-101).
- NCT03215511 (Phase I/II Study of LOXO-195 in Patients With Previously Treated NTRK Fusion Cancers): This is a phase I/II, multicenter, open-label study designed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of LOXO-195 when administered orally to patients aged 1 month and older with NTRK fusion cancers treated with a prior TRK inhibitor.
- NCT02568267 (Basket Study of Entrectinib [RXDX-101] for the Treatment of Patients With Solid Tumors Harboring NTRK 1/2/3 [Trk A/B/C], ROS1, or ALK Gene Rearrangements [Fusions] [STARTRK-2]): This is an open-label, multicenter, global phase II basket study of entrectinib (RXDX-101) for the treatment of patients 18 years and older with solid tumors that harbor an NTRK1/2/3, ROS1, or ALK gene fusion. Patients will be assigned to different baskets according to type of tumor and gene fusion.
Adult fibrosarcoma
These tumors lack the translocation seen in infantile fibrosarcomas. They present like most nonrhabdomyosarcomas, and the management approach is similar.
Myxofibrosarcoma
Myxofibrosarcoma is a rare lesion, especially in childhood. It is typically treated with complete surgical resection.
Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma
Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma is a histologically deceptive soft tissue neoplasm that most commonly affects young and middle-aged adults, is commonly located deep within the extremities, and is characterized by a FUS-CREB3L3 translocation and, rarely, alternative translocations such as FUS-CREB3L1 and EWSR1-CREB3L1.[4,119,120,121,122]
Prognosis
In a review of 33 patients (three were younger than 18 years) with low grade fibromyxoid sarcoma, 21 of 33 patients developed a local recurrence after intervals of up to 15 years (median, 3.5 years); 15 patients developed metastases up to 45 years (median, 5 years) from diagnosis, most commonly to the lungs and pleura, emphasizing the need for continued follow-up of these patients.[119] Even after metastases occur, the disease course may be indolent.[123]
In another report, 14 of 73 patients were younger than 18 years. In this series with a relatively short follow up (median of 24 months), only 8 of 54 patients with adequate follow-up developed local (9%) or distant (6%) recurrence. This report suggests that the behavior of this tumor might be significantly better than previously reported.[124] However, because of the occurrence of late metastases, careful monitoring of these patients is warranted.
The most recent Children's Oncology Group (COG) trial (ARST0332 [NCT00346164]) enrolled 11 patients with this tumor entity. The median age at diagnosis was 13 years and males were more commonly affected. The most common sites were the lower and upper extremity (n = 9) and none of the patients had developed local or distant disease recurrence at a median follow up of 2.7 years.[125]
Treatment
Treatment options for low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma include the following:
- Surgery.
Because low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma is not very chemosensitive, the limited treatment information suggests that surgery is the treatment of choice.[123] The German Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS) reported study results for 31 patients younger than 21 years with low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma.[121][Level of evidence: 3iiDi] The 5-year EFS rate was 71% (95% CI, ±18.6%), the 5-year local relapse-free survival rate was 76% (95% CI, ± 17.6%), and the 5-year OS rate was 100%. Among 24 patients who had R0 resections, 5 patients (21%) suffered relapse (3 local, 1 metastatic, and 1 combined). Among seven patients who had R1 resections, three patients (43%) suffered local relapse.
There are little data regarding the use of chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy in this disease. One report suggests that trabectedin may be effective in the treatment of low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma.[126]
Sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma
Sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma is a rare malignant sarcoma that commonly harbors EWSR1 gene fusions and has an aggressive clinical course. The tumor is poorly responsive to chemotherapy;[127,128,129] therefore, it is typically treated with complete surgical excision. Long-term follow-up is recommended because late local recurrence and metastases can occur.
Skeletal Muscle Tumors
Rhabdomyosarcoma
Refer to the PDQ summary on Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma Treatment for more information.
Smooth Muscle Tumors
Leiomyosarcoma
Leiomyosarcoma accounts for 2% of soft tissue sarcoma in patients younger than 20 years (refer to Table 1).
Risk factors
Among 43 children with HIV/AIDS who developed tumors, eight developed Epstein-Barr virus–associated leiomyosarcoma.[130] Survivors of hereditary retinoblastoma have a statistically significant increased risk of developing leiomyosarcoma, and 78% of these patients were diagnosed 30 or more years after the initial diagnosis of retinoblastoma.[131]
Treatment
Treatment options for leiomyosarcoma include the following:
- Chemotherapy (trabectedin).
Trabectedin has been studied in adults with leiomyosarcoma. Results from studies include the following:
- In an open-label study of trabectedin in adult patients with recurrent sarcomas, the best overall response rate (complete remission and partial remission) was seen in patients with leiomyosarcoma (7.5%).[132] The clinical benefit rate (includes stable disease) for leiomyosarcoma was 54%.
- In another adult study, patients with recurrent liposarcoma and leiomyosarcoma were randomly assigned to receive treatment with either trabectedin or dacarbazine. Patients treated with trabectedin had a 45% reduction in disease progression.[18]
There are no data to support the use of trabectedin in pediatric patients.
So-called Fibrohistiocytic Tumors
So-called fibrohistiocytic tumors include the following subtypes:
- Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor.
- Giant cell tumor of soft tissue.
Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor
Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor is a rare, low- to intermediate-grade tumor that most commonly affects children and young adults. Depending on the series, the median age at presentation ranges from 8 to 14.5 years; however, the tumor has been described in patients as young as 3 months.[133,134]
Clinical presentation
The tumor commonly arises as a painless mass in the skin or subcutaneous tissue and most often involves the upper extremities, including the fingers, hand, and wrist.[135,136,137] There are rare reports of the tumor spreading to regional lymph nodes or the lungs.[133,137,138]
Molecular features
No consistent chromosomal anomalies have been detected but a t(4;15)(q21;q15) translocation has been reported.[139]
Prognosis
Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor is an intermediate-grade tumor that rarely metastasizes.
Treatment
Treatment options for plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor include the following:
- Surgery is the treatment of choice but local recurrence has been reported in 12% to 50% of cases.[140]
Nerve Sheath Tumors
Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor
Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors account for 5% of soft tissue sarcoma in patients younger than 20 years (refer to Table 1).
Risk factors
Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor can arise sporadically and in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1).[141] Among patients with NF1, a family history of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor is associated with an increased risk of developing early-onset malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor.[142]
A rare case of a child with documented neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) and a benign neurofibroma had five recurrences; during this time, the lesions progressively lost markers (such as S-100) and acquired clear-cut signs of malignant transformation to malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor, documented by multiple markers, including the first example of NOTCH2 in this disease.[143]
Molecular features
Molecular features of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor include the following:
- Inactivating mutations of SUZ12 have been described in these tumors and are absent in neurofibromas.[144]
- A DNA methylation array for methylome-based and profile-based chromosomal characterization was performed on 171 peripheral nerve sheath tumors.[145] Atypical neurofibromas and low-grade malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors were indistinguishable, with a common methylation profile and loss of CDKN2A. Epigenomic analysis identified two groups of conventional high-grade malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor sharing a frequent loss of neurofibromin. The larger group showed an additional loss of trimethylation of H3K27me3. The smaller group of patients with predominantly spinal primary sites showed retention of H3K27me3.
- Genomic profiling was performed on 201 malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors.[146] Thirteen of 201 tumors demonstrated BRAF alterations.
Prognosis
Features associated with a favorable prognosis include the following:[141,147,148,149]
- Smaller tumor size. In a multivariate analysis, only tumor size and nuclear p53 expression were found to be independent predictors of disease-specific survival.[148]
- Male sex and non-Hispanic white race.[150]
- No metastasis at presentation. A retrospective review of 140 patients with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor from the MD Anderson Cancer Center included children and adolescents. The disease-specific survival at 10 years was 32%. In this series, presence of metastatic disease was associated with a much worse prognosis.[148]
- Lower stage.
- Lower histologic grade.
- Extremity as the primary site.
Features associated with an unfavorable prognosis include the following:[151]
- High grade.
- Deep tumor location.
- Locally advanced stage at diagnosis.
- Macroscopically incomplete resection (R2).
- Inactivation of p53, either by mutation or amplification of MDM2.[152]
- High expression of p53 and cyclin D1. These markers were identified as adverse prognostic factors using immunohistochemical staining of diagnostic biopsy tissue.[153][Level of evidence: 3iiDi]
For patients with localized disease in the MD Anderson Cancer Center study, there was no significant difference in outcome between patients with and without NF1.[148] In other studies, it was not clear whether the absence of NF1 is a favorable prognostic factor as it has been associated with both favorable [147] and unfavorable outcomes.[141,147,149] In the French Sarcoma Group study, NF1 was associated with other adverse prognostic features, but was not an independent predictor of poor outcome.[151] A retrospective analysis of cancer registry data from the Netherlands identified 784 patients with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor; 70 of the patients were aged 18 years or younger.[154][Level of evidence: 3iA] In children with NF1, large tumor size was more common (>5 cm, 92.3% vs. 59.1%). Overall, the estimated 5-year survival rate of patients with localized malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor and NF1 was 52.4% (standard error [SE], 10.1%), compared with 75.8% (SE, 7.1%) for non-NF1 patients.
The Italian Sarcoma Group reported on outcomes after recurrence in 73 children and adolescents with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor.[155][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] The median OS after first relapse was 11 months, and the survival rates were 39.2% at 1 year and 15.8% at 5 years. The factors associated with a better prognosis for these patients who relapsed were less initial tumor invasiveness, longer time to relapse, and the achievement of a secondary complete remission (which was related to the feasibility of radical surgery).
Treatment
Treatment options for malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor include the following:
- Surgery.
- Surgery preceded or followed by radiation therapy.[9,10]
- Chemotherapy, for unresectable tumors.
Complete surgical removal of the tumor, whenever possible, is the mainstay of treatment.
The role of radiation therapy is difficult to assess, but durable local control of known postoperative microscopic residual tumor is not assured after radiation therapy.
- Chemotherapy has achieved objective responses in childhood malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor. A large retrospective analysis of the German and Italian experience with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor reported that 65% of measurable tumors had objective responses to ifosfamide-containing chemotherapy regimens, but the analysis did not conclusively demonstrate improved survival with chemotherapy.[141] This retrospective analysis also noted a trend toward improved outcome with postoperative radiation therapy.[141]
- A series of 37 young patients with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor and NF1 showed that most patients had large invasive tumors that were poorly responsive to chemotherapy; PFS was 19%, and 5-year OS was 28%.[156]
- The EpSSG performed a prospective study in patients aged 21 years and younger with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor.[157] Surgical resection of primary tumors was classified as R0 if the resection was complete with negative microscopic margins, R1 if the margins were microscopically positive, and R2 if the resection left macroscopic residual tumor. Patients were nonrandomly assigned to one of the following four treatment groups:
- Cohort 1: Patients with completely resected tumors (R0) who received surgery only (n = 13); the 5-year EFS rate was 92%.
- Cohort 2: Patients with incompletely resected tumors (R1/R2) who received adjuvant radiation therapy (n = 4); the 5-year EFS rate was 33%.
- Cohort 3: Patients with incompletely resected tumors (R1/R2) who received adjuvant chemotherapy (n = 7); the 5-year EFS rate was 29%.
- Cohort 4: Patients who received either chemotherapy before surgical resection and/or who had nodal involvement (n = 27); the 5-year EFS rate was 52%.
For patients who received chemotherapy, treatment consisted of four courses of ifosfamide/doxorubicin and two courses of ifosfamide concomitant with radiation therapy (50.4–54 Gy). The response rate to chemotherapy (partial response + complete response) in patients with measurable disease was 46%. The presence of NF1 (51% of patients) was an independent poor prognostic factor for OS and EFS.
Recurrent malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor
Of 120 patients enrolled in Italian pediatric protocols from 1979 to 2004, an analysis identified 73 patients younger than 21 years with relapsed malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor. The time to relapse from initial diagnosis ranged from 1 month to 204 months, with a median time to relapse of 7 months. Median OS from first relapse was 11 months, with an OS rate of 39% at 1 year and 16% at 5 years. The factors associated with a higher probability of survival after relapse were lower tumor invasiveness at initial presentation, longer time to relapse, and complete surgical resection of the tumor at relapse.[155]
Treatment options under clinical evaluation
Information about NCI-supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following are examples of national and/or institutional clinical trials that are currently being conducted:
Malignant Triton tumor
Malignant Triton tumors are a variant of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. They occur most often in patients with NF1 and consist of neurogenic and rhabdomyoblastic components. Malignant Triton tumors are high-grade malignancies. They usually occur before age 35 years and are very rare in children (case reports only).[158]
Treatment
Malignant Triton tumors are not usually responsive to chemotherapy and radiation therapy but have been treated with rhabdomyosarcoma therapy.[158][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] (Refer to the PDQ summary on Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma Treatment for more information.)
Ectomesenchymoma
Ectomesenchymoma is a rare nerve sheath tumor that mainly occurs in children. It is a biphenotypic soft tissue sarcoma with both mesenchymal and ectodermal components.
- A retrospective review of six patients with malignant ectomesenchymoma from a single institution identified rhabdomyosarcoma as the mesenchymal element in five of six tumors.[159] Tumors with an alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma morphology exhibited the characteristic translocation. No unifying molecular aberrations were identified.
- A single-institution retrospective review identified seven cases of malignant ectomesenchymoma.[160] All seven patients were male, with a mean age of 7.5 months (range, 0.6–17.0 months). Most patients showed elements of embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma. The mixed neuroectodermal elements were scattered ganglion cells, ganglioneuroma, or ganglioneuroblastoma. Six of seven cases had HRAS mutations. The trimethylation at lysine 27 of histone H3 (H3K27me3), typically lost in malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor, was retained in all cases. Five of the seven patients in this series were healthy and free of disease at the time of reporting.
Treatment
Treatment options for ectomesenchymoma include the following:
- Surgery.
- Chemotherapy.
- Radiation therapy.
The CWS reported on six patients (ages 0.2–13.5 years) registered over 14 years.[161][Level of evidence: 3iiA] The tumors were located in various sites including the extremities, abdomen, and orbit. All six patients were treated with surgery and chemotherapy directed at rhabdomyosarcoma. Two patients received radiation therapy. Three patients recurred with rhabdomyosarcoma features. Although data are scant, it appears that the tumor may respond to chemotherapy.[161]
Pericytic (Perivascular) Tumors
Myopericytoma
Infantile hemangiopericytoma, a subtype of myopericytoma, is a highly vascularized tumor of uncertain origin.
Children younger than 1 year with hemangiopericytoma seem to have a better prognosis than do children older than 1 year with hemangiopericytoma.[162,163,164]
Histology
Histologically, hemangiopericytomas are composed of packed round or fusiform cells that are arranged around a complex vasculature, forming many branch-like structures. Hyalinization is often present. Infantile hemangiopericytomas have similar histology but many are multilobular with vasculature outside the tumor mass.[165]
Treatment and outcome
Treatment options for infantile hemangiopericytomas include the following:
- Chemotherapy.
In a series of 17 children, the differences in metastatic potential and response to treatment were clearly demonstrated for adult and infantile hemangiopericytomas.[166] Eleven children were older than 1 year. Several of these patients had disease in the lymph nodes or lungs. Six patients with stage II or stage III disease progressed and died. Three patients with stage I disease survived, although one patient had recurrence in the lungs. Six patients had infantile hemangiopericytoma, of which five were greater than stage I. All six patients survived, and three patients had good responses to vincristine, actinomycin, and cyclophosphamide.
Several studies have reported on tumors in children that were more akin to infantile myofibromatosis (refer to the Infantile myofibromatosis section of this summary) or hemangiopericytoma.[111,167] Rather than the ETV6-NTRK3 fusion protein seen in congenital infantile fibrosarcoma, a LMNA-NTRK1 fusion protein was identified.[168] One patient carrying this fusion responded to crizotinib.
Infantile myofibromatosis
This entity is a fibrous tumor of infancy and childhood that most commonly presents in the first 2 years of life.[169]
The lesion can present as a single subcutaneous nodule (myofibroma) most commonly involving the head and neck region, or lesions can affect multiple skin areas, muscle, and bone (myofibromatosis).[170,171,172,173]
An autosomal dominant form of the disease has been described and it is associated with germline mutations of the PDGFRB gene.[174] Somatic PDGFRB mutations have also been identified without germline mutations.[175]
Treatment and outcome
These lesions have an excellent prognosis and can regress spontaneously. About one-third of cases with multicentric involvement will also have visceral involvement, and the prognosis for these patients is poor.[172,173,176]
Treatment options for infantile myofibromatosis include the following:
- Chemotherapy.
The use of combination therapy with vincristine/dactinomycin and vinblastine/methotrexate have proven effective in cases of multicentric disease with visceral involvement and in cases in which the disease has progressed and has threatened the life of the patient (e.g., upper airway obstruction).[172,173,177]
Tumors of Uncertain Differentiation
Tumors of uncertain differentiation include the following subtypes:
- Synovial sarcoma NOS (spindle cell and biphasic varieties).
- Epithelioid sarcoma.
- Alveolar soft part sarcoma.
- Clear cell sarcoma of soft tissue.
- Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma.
- Extraskeletal Ewing sarcoma.
- Desmoplastic small round cell tumor.
- Extra-renal rhabdoid tumor.
- Neoplasms with perivascular epithelioid cell differentiation (PEComa) (PEComa NOS, malignant).
Synovial sarcoma NOS
Synovial sarcoma accounts for 9% of soft tissue sarcomas in patients younger than 20 years (refer to Table 1).
Synovial sarcoma is one of the most common nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas in children and adolescents. In a 1973 to 2005 SEER review, 1,268 patients with synovial sarcoma were identified. Approximately 17% of these patients were children and adolescents, and the median age at diagnosis was 34 years.[178]
Histologic classification
Synovial sarcoma can be subclassified as the following types:
- Synovial sarcoma NOS.
- Synovial sarcoma, spindle cell.
- Synovial sarcoma, biphasic.
Clinical presentation
The most common tumor location is the extremities, followed by trunk and head and neck.[178] Rarely, a synovial sarcoma may arise in the heart or pericardium.[179]
The most common site of metastasis is the lung.[180,181] The risk of metastases is highly influenced by tumor size; it is estimated that patients with tumors that are larger than 5 cm have a 32-fold risk of developing metastases when compared with other patients.
Diagnostic evaluation and molecular features
The diagnosis of synovial sarcoma is made by immunohistochemical analysis, ultrastructural findings, and demonstration of the specific chromosomal translocation t(x;18)(p11.2;q11.2). This abnormality is specific for synovial sarcoma and is found in all morphologic subtypes. Synovial sarcoma results in rearrangement of the SYT gene on chromosome 18 with one of the subtypes (1, 2, or 4) of the SSX gene on chromosome X.[182,183] It is thought that the SYT/SSX18 transcript promotes epigenetic silencing of key tumor suppressor genes.[184]
In one report, reduced INI1 nuclear reactivity on immunohistochemical staining was seen in 49 cases of synovial sarcoma, suggesting that this pattern may help distinguish synovial sarcoma from other histologies.[185]
Prognosis
Patients younger than 10 years have more favorable outcomes and clinical features—including extremity primaries, smaller tumors, and localized disease—than do older patients.[178,186,187] A meta-analysis also suggested that response to chemotherapy was correlated with improved survival.[188]
The following studies have reported multiple factors associated with unfavorable outcomes:
- In a retrospective analysis of synovial sarcoma in children and adolescents who were treated in Germany and Italy, tumor size (>5 cm or ≤5 cm in greatest dimension) was an important predictor of EFS.[189] In this analysis, local invasiveness conferred an inferior probability of EFS, but surgical margins were not associated with clinical outcome.
- In a single-institution retrospective analysis of 111 patients with synovial sarcoma who were younger than 22 years at diagnosis, larger tumor size, greater depth in tissue, greater local invasiveness, and more proximal tumor location were associated with poorer OS.[190][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
- A multicenter analysis of 219 children from various treating centers, including Germany, SJCRH, Instituto Tumori, and MD Anderson Cancer Center, reported an estimated 5-year OS of 80% and EFS rate of 72%.[188] In this analysis, an interaction between tumor size and invasiveness was observed; in multivariate analysis, patients with large or invasive tumors or with Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study (IRS) group III disease (localized, incompletely resected or with biopsy only) and group IV disease (metastases at diagnosis) had decreased OS. Treatment with radiation therapy was related to improved OS (HR, 0.4; 95% CI, 0.2–0.7). In IRS group III patients, objective response to chemotherapy (18 of 30 [60%]) correlated with improved survival. In adults, factors such as International Union Against Cancer/American Joint Committee on Cancer stage III and stage IVA, tumor necrosis, truncal location, elevated mitotic rate, age, and histologic grade have been associated with a worse prognosis.[191,192,193]
- Expression and genomic index prognostic signatures have been studied in synovial sarcoma. Complex genomic profiles, with greater rearrangement of the genome, are more common in adults than in younger patients with synovial sarcoma and are associated with a higher risk of metastasis.[194]
- A review of 84 patients with localized synovial sarcoma who had information on fusion status (SYT-SSX) and histologic grading found no difference in OS according to these criteria. However, for tumor size at diagnosis, the study showed that patients with tumors between 5 cm and 10 cm had a worse prognosis than those with smaller tumors (P = .02), and patients with tumors larger than 10 cm had even worse OS (P = .0003).[195][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]
- The German CWS group reviewed 27 evaluable patients younger than 21 years with pulmonary metastases among 296 patients with synovial sarcoma. Metastases involved the lungs in all patients. The 5-year EFS rate was 26%, and the OS rate was 30%. The most important prognostic factor at presentation was that the metastases were limited to one lesion in one lung or one lesion in both lungs (a group they termed oligometastatic). Treatment elements associated with superior survival were adequate local therapy of the primary tumor and, if feasible, for the metastases. The use of whole-lung irradiation did not correlate with better outcomes.[196][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
- The EpSSG designed a genomic index for synovial sarcoma.[197][Level of evidence: 3iiDiii] Genomic index was defined as A2 /C, where A is the total number of alterations (segmental gains and losses) and C is the number of involved chromosomes on array comparative genomic hybridization results. In a multivariate analysis of 61 pediatric, adolescent, and young adult patients (aged <25 years), high genomic index was an independent predictor of decreased EFS and OS.
Treatment
Treatment options for synovial sarcoma include the following:
- Surgery. Radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy may be given before or after surgery.[9,10]
- Chemotherapy.
The COG and the European Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group reported a combined analysis of 60 patients younger than 21 years with localized synovial sarcoma prospectively assigned to surgery without adjuvant radiation therapy or chemotherapy.[198] Enrollment was limited to patients with initial complete resection with histologically free margins, with a grade 2 tumor of any size or a grade 3 tumor 5 cm or smaller. The 3-year EFS was 90% (median follow-up, 5.2 years; range, 1.9–9.1). All eight events were local tumor recurrence; no metastatic recurrences were seen. All patients with recurrent disease were effectively treated with second-line therapy, resulting in 100% OS.
Synovial sarcoma appears to be more sensitive to chemotherapy than many other soft tissue sarcomas, and children with synovial sarcoma seem to have a better prognosis than do adults with synovial sarcoma.[15,181,193,199,200,201,202,203] The most commonly used regimens for the treatment of synovial sarcoma incorporate ifosfamide and doxorubicin.[188,202,204] Response rates to the ifosfamide and doxorubicin regimen are higher than in other nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas.[205]
Studies have reported the following chemotherapy-associated treatment findings:
Recurrent synovial sarcoma NOS
Survival after relapse is poor (30%–40% at 5 years). Factors associated with outcome after relapse include duration of first remission (> or ≤ 18 months) and lack of a second remission.[211,212] In the German experience, surgical resection of metastatic deposits was the most common way to achieve a second complete remission.[212] Maintenance chemotherapy with oral trofosfamide, idarubicin, and etoposide or oral cyclophosphamide and intravenous vinblastine was administered on an individual basis.
Radiation therapy (stereotactic body radiation therapy) can be used to target select pulmonary metastases. This is usually considered after at least one resection to confirm metastatic disease. Radiation therapy is particularly appropriate for patients with lesions that threaten air exchange because of their location adjacent to bronchi or cause pain by invading the chest wall.[213]
Treatment options under clinical evaluation
Information about NCI-supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:
- ADP 04511 (NCT01343043) (A Pilot Study of Genetically Engineered NY-ESO-1 Specific [c259] T Cells in HLA-A2+ Patients With Synovial Sarcoma): Patients with unresectable, metastatic, or recurrent synovial sarcoma undergo apheresis. Cells are shipped to a central laboratory where they undergo NY-ESO-1 transduction, expansion, and cryopreservation. Patients undergo lymphodepletion with fludarabine and cyclophosphamide, followed by an infusion of autologous transfected cells. Eligibility is restricted to patients with HLA type A2+, age older than 4 years, and weight greater than 18 kg.
- NCT02683148 (Prasterone in Treating Patients With Synovial Sarcoma That Is Metastatic or Cannot Be Removed by Surgery): Prasterone (dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA]) is a natural allosteric inhibitor of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD). G6PD is a key regulatory enzyme needed for the survival of synovial sarcoma. The investigators postulate that treatment with DHEA can inhibit the production of NADPH (reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) in synovial sarcoma and cause cell death.
Epithelioid sarcoma
Epithelioid sarcoma is a rare mesenchymal tumor of uncertain histogenesis that displays multilineage differentiation.[214]
Clinical presentation
Epithelioid sarcoma commonly presents as a slowly growing firm nodule based in the deep soft tissue; the proximal type predominantly affects adults and involves the axial skeleton and proximal sites. The tumor is highly aggressive and has a propensity for lymph node metastases.
Molecular features
Epithelioid sarcoma is characterized by inactivation of the SMARCB1 gene, which is present in both conventional and proximal types of epithelioid sarcoma.[215] This abnormality leads to increased dependence on EZH2 and tumor formation.[216]
Treatment
Treatment options for epithelioid sarcoma include the following:
- Chemotherapy.
- Surgery.
- Surgery preceded or followed by radiation therapy.
Patients should be carefully evaluated for the presence of involved lymph nodes; suspicious lymph nodes are biopsied. Surgical removal of primary and recurrent tumor(s) is the most effective treatment.[217][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] Because of the propensity of this disease to have occult metastasis to the lymph nodes, sentinel lymph node biopsy is recommended for epithelioid sarcoma of the extremities or buttocks in the absence of clinically (by imaging or physical examination) enlarged lymph nodes.[218]
In a review of 30 pediatric patients with epithelioid sarcoma (median age at presentation, 12 years), responses to chemotherapy were reported in 40% of patients using sarcoma-based regimens, and 60% of patients were alive at 5 years after initial diagnosis.[219] A single-institution retrospective review of 20 patients, which included children and adults (median age, 27.3 years), found no difference in the probability of recurrence between patients who received chemotherapy and those who did not receive chemotherapy and suggested that radiation therapy may be useful.[217]
In a German Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe retrospective analysis of 67 children, adolescents, and young adults (median age, 14 years) with epithelioid sarcoma, 53 patients presented with localized disease and 14 patients presented with metastatic disease.[220][Level of evidence: 3iiA] Fifty-eight of 67 patients were treated with primary resections. Resections were microscopically complete in 35 patients, microscopically incomplete in 12 patients, and macroscopically incomplete in 20 patients. Forty-nine patients received chemotherapy, and 33 patients received radiation therapy. Complete remission was achieved in 45 of 53 patients (85%) with localized disease. Twenty-seven patients relapsed after a median time of 0.9 years (range, 0.1–2.3 years). Patients with localized disease had a 5-year EFS rate of 35% (95% CI, ±12%) and an OS rate of 48% (95% CI, ±14%). Patients with metastatic disease had a 5-year EFS rate of 7% (95% CI, ±14%) and an OS rate of 9% (95% CI, ±16%). Smaller tumor size, lower IRS group, less tumor invasiveness, negative nodal status, and microscopically complete resection correlated with a favorable prognosis in patients with localized disease.
A retrospective analysis reviewed COG and EpSSG prospective clinical trials that enrolled patients younger than 30 years with epithelioid sarcoma.[221][Level of evidence: 2A] The analysis identified 63 patients who were treated between July 2005 and November 2015. Patients were stratified into three risk groups using a combination of clinical features and treatment received. Low-risk patients underwent surgery with or without radiation therapy and included predominantly patients with nonmetastatic widely or marginally resected tumors 5 cm or smaller. The intermediate-risk group included patients with nonmetastatic, high-grade, and larger than 5 cm tumors or unresectable tumors. Those with nodal or distant metastatic disease were at high risk, regardless of tumor grade or size. Partial response was observed in 11 of 22 patients (50%) who received neoadjuvant therapy. Events were local recurrence (n = 10) and distant recurrence (n = 15); estimated 5-year OS rates were 86.4% for low-risk patients, 63.5% for intermediate-risk patients, and 0% for high-risk patients. Locoregional nodal involvement, invasive tumor, high grade, and lesser extent of resection predicted poorer EFS in patients without metastases.
In a phase I trial of the EZH2 inhibitor tazemetostat, two patients with INI1-negative epithelioid sarcoma had prolonged stable disease for more than 20 months after starting therapy.[222]
Treatment options under clinical evaluation
Information about NCI-supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:
- NCT02601937 (A Phase I Study of the EZH2 Inhibitor Tazemetostat in Pediatric Subjects With Relapsed or Refractory INI1-Negative Tumors or Synovial Sarcoma): Patients with INI1-negative tumors are eligible for targeted treatment with an EZH2 inhibitor. This is a phase I, open-label, dose-escalation, and dose-expansion study with a twice-daily oral dose of tazemetostat.
Alveolar soft part sarcoma
Alveolar soft part sarcomas account for 1.4% of soft tissue sarcomas in patients younger than 20 years (refer to Table 1).
Clinical presentation
The median age at presentation is 25 years, and alveolar soft part sarcoma most commonly arises in the extremities but can occur in the oral and maxillofacial region.[223,224,225] Alveolar soft part sarcoma in children can present with evidence of metastatic disease.[226] Delayed metastases to the brain and lung are uncommon.[223]
In a series of 61 patients with alveolar soft part sarcoma who were treated in four consecutive CWS trials and the SoTiSaR registry, 46 patients presented with localized disease and 15 patients had evidence of metastasis at diagnosis.[227] Of the nine children with alveolar soft part sarcoma younger than 30 years who were treated between 1980 and 2014 at four major institutions, the median age at diagnosis was 17 years, and 64% of patients were female. The most common site of disease was the lower extremity, and 26 patients had an ASSPL-TFE3 translocation. The distribution by Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study (IRS) group was as follows: 19 patients with IRS I disease, 7 patients with IRS II disease, 5 patients with IRS III disease, and 38 patients with IRS IV disease.[228]
Molecular features
This tumor of uncertain histogenesis is characterized by a consistent chromosomal translocation t(X;17)(p11.2;q25) that fuses the ASPSCR1 gene with the TFE3 gene.[229,230]
Prognosis
Alveolar soft part sarcoma in children may have an indolent course.[226] Patients with alveolar soft part sarcoma may relapse several years after a prolonged period of apparent remission.[227,231] Because these tumors are rare, all children with alveolar soft part sarcoma should be considered for enrollment in prospective clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.
In a series of 19 treated patients, one group reported a 5-year OS rate of 80%, a 91% OS rate for patients with localized disease, a 100% OS rate for patients with tumors 5 cm or smaller, and a 31% OS rate for patients with tumors larger than 5 cm.[232] In another series of 33 patients, OS was 68% at 5 years from diagnosis and 53% at 10 years from diagnosis. Survival was better for smaller tumors (≤5 cm) and completely resected tumors.[233][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
A retrospective review of children and young adults younger than 30 years (median age, 17 years; range, 1.5–30 years) from four institutions identified 69 patients treated primarily with surgery between 1980 and 2014.[228][Level of evidence: 3iiA] The ASPL-TFE3 translocation was present in all 26 patients tested. There were 19 patients with IRS postsurgical staging group I tumors (28%), 7 patients with IRS group II tumors (10%), 5 patients with IRS group III tumors (7%), and 38 patients with IRS group IV tumors (55%). The 5-year EFS was 80% and the OS was 87% for the 31 patients with localized tumors (IRS postsurgical groups I, II, and III). The 5-year EFS was 7% and the OS was 61% for the 38 patients with metastatic tumors (IRS postsurgical group IV).
In patients with alveolar soft part sarcoma, presentation with metastases is common and often has a prolonged indolent course. In a series of patients treated on consecutive studies from Germany, 15 of 61 patients (25%) presented with metastases, often miliary in nature. Despite lack of response to chemotherapy, the 5-year OS was 61%, with an EFS of 20%.[227]
Treatment
Treatment options for alveolar soft part sarcoma include the following:
- Surgery.
- Surgery preceded or followed by radiation therapy.[9,10]
- Targeted therapy (tyrosine kinase inhibitor).
- Check point inhibitors.[234]
The standard approach is complete resection of the primary lesion.[232] If complete excision is not feasible, radiation therapy is administered. A study from China reported on 18 patients with alveolar soft part sarcoma of the oral and maxillofacial region; 15 patients were younger than 30 years.[225][Level of evidence: 3iiDii] Surgical removal with negative margins was the primary treatment. All patients survived, and only one patient had metastatic disease recurrence.
A series of 51 pediatric patients aged 0 to 21 years with alveolar soft part sarcoma found an OS rate at 10 years of 78% and an EFS rate of about 63%. Patients with localized disease (n = 37) had a 10-year OS of 87%, and the 14 patients with metastases at diagnosis had a 10-year OS of 44%, partly resulting from surgical removal of primary tumor and lung metastases in some patients. Only 3 of 18 patients (17%) with measurable disease had a response to conventional antisarcoma chemotherapy, but two of four patients treated with sunitinib had a partial response.[223][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]
In a series of patients treated on consecutive studies from Germany, PFS for patients without metastases on presentation appeared to improve with complete resection of the primary tumor; the 5-year EFS was 100% for patients with completely resected tumors, compared with 50% for patients with microscopic or gross residual disease.[227]
There have been sporadic reports of objective responses to interferon-alpha and bevacizumab.[223,235,236]
Studies of tyrosine kinase inhibitors have observed the following:
- A small retrospective study of nine adult patients with metastatic alveolar soft part sarcoma treated with sunitinib reported partial responses in five patients and stable disease in two patients.[237][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]
- In another study, 15 patients with alveolar soft part sarcoma were treated with sunitinib, and six patients experienced partial responses. The median PFS was 19 months, and the median OS was 56 months. The 5-year OS rate was 49%.[238][Level of evidence: 3iiA] Five patients were treated with sunitinib for longer than 2 years.
- In a phase II trial of cediranib, an inhibitor of all three known vascular epidermal growth factor receptors, 15 of 43 adult patients (35%) with metastatic alveolar soft part sarcoma had partial responses.[239][Level of evidence: 3iiDiv] In a pediatric phase II trial of cediranib, using 70% of the adult maximum tolerated dose in patients younger than 16 years, five of seven patients had stable disease for 14 months or longer.[240][Level of evidence: 2Diii]
- An international group performed a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, phase II trial of cediranib in adolescent and adult patients with alveolar soft part sarcoma.[241][Level of evidence: 1iA] Median percentage change in sum of target marker lesion diameters for the evaluable population was -8.3% (interquartile range [IQR], -26.5–5.9) for patients who received cediranib therapy, compared with 13.4% (IQR, 1.1–21.3) for patients who received the placebo (one-sided P = .0010). The authors concluded that cediranib is an active agent in patients with alveolar soft part sarcoma.
- In an open-label trial that evaluated the efficacy of pazopanib in six adult patients, one patient achieved a partial response and five patients had stable disease.[242] In another trial of 30 adult patients treated with pazopanib, one patient experienced a complete response, seven patients experienced partial responses, and 17 patients had stable disease. The median PFS was 13.6 months.[243]
- In one trial, patients with advanced sarcomas were treated with a combination of axitinib (a vascular endothelial growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor) and pembrolizumab (an anti–programmed cell death protein 1 immune checkpoint inhibitor).[234] For the 12 patients with alveolar soft part sarcoma, the 3-month PFS rate was 73%. Six of eleven patients with evaluable disease had partial responses to axitinib.
Treatment options under clinical evaluation for alveolar soft part sarcoma
Information about NCI-supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:
- NCT01391962 (Sunitinib or Cediranib for Alveolar Soft Part Sarcoma): A phase II trial in which patients with metastatic alveolar soft part sarcoma are randomly assigned to either sunitinib or cediranib monotherapy, with crossover at disease progression. Patients aged 16 years and older are eligible. This study is being conducted at the Clinical Center of the National Institutes of Health.
- NCT03141684 (Atezolizumab in Treating Patients With Newly Diagnosed and Metastatic Alveolar Soft Part Sarcoma That Cannot Be Removed by Surgery): This phase II trial studies how well atezolizumab works in treating patients with alveolar soft part sarcoma that has not been treated, has spread from where it started to other places in the body, and cannot be removed by surgery. Immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies, such as atezolizumab, may help the body's immune system attack the cancer, and may interfere with the ability of tumor cells to grow and spread. Patients aged 2 years and older are eligible for this trial.
Clear cell sarcoma of soft tissue
Clear cell sarcoma (formerly and inappropriately called malignant melanoma of soft parts) is a rare soft tissue sarcoma that typically involves the deep soft tissues of the extremities. It is also called clear cell sarcoma of tendons and aponeuroses. The tumor often affects adolescents and young adults.
Patients who have small, localized tumors with low mitotic rate and intermediate histologic grade fare best.[244]
Clinical presentation
The tumor most commonly affects the lower extremity, particularly the foot, heel, and ankle.[245,246] It has a high propensity for nodal dissemination, especially metastases to regional lymph nodes (12%–43%).[246,247] The tumor typically has an indolent clinical course.
Molecular features
Clear cell sarcoma of soft tissue is characterized by an EWSR1-ATF1 or EWSR1-CREB1 fusion.[248,249]
Treatment
Treatment options for clear cell sarcoma of soft tissue include the following:
- Surgery.
- Surgery preceded or followed by radiation therapy.[9,10]
- Targeted therapy.
In a series of 28 pediatric patients reported by the Italian and German Soft Tissue Cooperative Studies, the median age at diagnosis was 14 years and the lower extremity was the most common primary site (50%). Surgery with or without radiation therapy is the treatment of choice and offers the best chance for cure. In this series, 12 of 13 patients with completely resected tumors were cured. For patients with more advanced disease, the outcome is poor and chemotherapy is rarely effective.[250]; [251][Level of evidence: 3iiDii] In a study by the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer, 26 patients with clear cell sarcoma who had metastatic disease and documented EWSR1 rearrangements were treated with crizotinib.[252] One patient achieved a partial response, and 17 patients had stable disease.
Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma
Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma is relatively rare among soft tissue sarcomas, representing only 2.3% of all soft tissue sarcoma.[253] It has been reported in children and adolescents.[254]
Molecular features
Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma is a multinodular neoplasm. The rounded cells are arranged in cords and strands in a chondroitin sulfate myxoid background. Several cytogenetic abnormalities have been identified (refer to Table 2), with the most frequent being the translocation t(9;22)(q22;q12), involving the EWSR1-NR4A3 genes.[255]
Prognosis
The tumor has traditionally been considered of low-grade malignant potential.[256] However, recent reports from large institutions showed that extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma has significant malignant potential, especially if patients are monitored for a long time.[257,258] Patients tend to have slow protracted courses. Nodal involvement has been well described. Local recurrence (57%) and metastatic spread to lungs (26%) have been reported.[258]
Treatment
Treatment options for extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma include the following:
- Surgery.
- Radiation therapy.
Aggressive local control and resection of metastases led to OS rates of 87% at 5 years and 63% at 10 years. Tumors were relatively resistant to radiation therapy.[257] The therapeutic benefit of chemotherapy has not been established.
There may be potential genetic targets for small molecules, but these should be studied as part of a clinical trial. In an adult study, six of ten patients who received sunitinib achieved partial responses.[259]
Treatment options under clinical evaluation
Information about NCI-supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:
- NCT02601937 (A Phase I Study of the EZH2 Inhibitor Tazemetostat in Pediatric Subjects With Relapsed or Refractory INI1-Negative Tumors or Synovial Sarcoma): Patients with INI1-negative tumors are eligible for targeted treatment with an EZH2 inhibitor. This is a phase I, open-label, dose-escalation, and dose-expansion study with a twice-daily oral dose of tazemetostat.
Extraskeletal Ewing sarcoma
(Refer to the PDQ summary on Ewing Sarcoma Treatment for more information.)
Desmoplastic small round cell tumor
Desmoplastic small round cell tumor is a rare primitive sarcoma.
Clinical presentation
Desmoplastic small round cell tumor most frequently involves the peritoneum in the abdomen, pelvis, and/or peritoneum into the scrotal sac, but it may occur in the kidney or other solid organs.[260,261,262,263,264] Dozens to hundreds of intraperitoneal implants are often found. The tumor occurs in males (85%) and may spread to the lungs and elsewhere.[264,265]
A large single-institution series of 65 patients compared computed tomography (CT) scans in most patients (n = 54) with positron emission tomography (PET)-CT scans (n = 11). PET-CT scans had very few false-negative results and detected metastatic sites missed on conventional CT scans.[265]
Molecular features
Cytogenetic studies of these tumors have demonstrated the recurrent translocation t(11;22)(p13;q12), which has been characterized as a fusion of the WT1 and EWSR1 genes.[263,266] The WT1-EWSR1 fusion confirms the diagnosis of desmoplastic small round cell tumor.
Prognosis
The overall prognosis for desmoplastic small round cell tumor remains extremely poor, with reported rates of death at 90%. Greater than 90% tumor resection either at presentation or after preoperative chemotherapy may be a favorable prognostic factor for OS.[267,268]; [269][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] Response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy and complete resection (near 100%) is associated with improved outcome.[264,270]
Treatment
There is no standard approach to the treatment of desmoplastic small round cell tumor.
Treatment options for desmoplastic small round cell tumor include the following:
- Surgery.
- Chemotherapy followed by surgery.
- Radiation therapy.
Complete surgical resections are rare and usually performed in highly specialized centers, but are critical for any improved survival. Successful treatment modalities include neoadjuvant Ewing-type chemotherapy, followed by complete surgical resection of the extensive intra-abdominal tumors, followed by total abdominal radiation therapy. With this multimodality therapy, survival can be achieved in 30% to 40% of patients at 5 years.[260,261,267,271,272,273,274]
The addition of hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC) to complete surgical resection (cytoreductive surgery), is a new technique first applied to children in 2006 in a phase I clinical trial. Cytoreductive surgery and HIPEC for desmoplastic small round cell tumors is part of a multidisciplinary approach and is only being done in highly specialized centers. Surgeries can last over 12 hours in duration, and technical aspects of this unique tumor resection should be considered. HIPEC is a method of local treatment that may provide more control of the microscopic intra-abdominal disease. The theory is that heat plus the chemotherapy that is instilled in the abdominal cavity after surgical resection (at the time of surgery) provides synergistic cytotoxicity to any microscopic cells remaining in the abdomen.[275]
A single-institution phase II study showed HIPEC to be a potentially promising addition to complete surgical resection. Fourteen patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumor and five patients with other sarcomas were enrolled. These highly selected patients had tumor limited to the abdominal cavity, demonstrated a partial response to neoadjuvant Ewing-type chemotherapy, had complete surgical resections and received HIPEC using cisplatin, and received adjuvant total-abdominal radiation therapy followed by adjuvant chemotherapy. With this standardized approach, patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumors had an OS rate of 80% at 30 months and 40% at 50 months. Patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumors without liver metastasis had no intra-abdominal recurrence, whereas 87% of patients with liver metastasis or portal disease recurred.[275]
Other centers have used this approach of cytoreductive surgery and HIPEC in patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumors. In a retrospective study of patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumors from centers in France, patients were treated with cytoreductive surgery and HIPEC. Twenty-two patients were selected, and the median age at diagnosis was 14.8 years (range, 4.2–17.6 years). Seven patients had peritoneal mesotheliomas, seven patients had desmoplastic small round cells tumors, and eight patients had other histologic types. A complete macroscopic resection (CC-0, where CC is completeness of cytoreduction) was achieved in 16 cases (73%). Sixteen patients (72%) relapsed after a median time of 9.6 months (range, 1.4–86.4 months), and nine patients (41%) died of disease relapse after a median time of 5.3 months (range, 0.1–36.1 months). Not all of the seven patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumors had complete resections.[276][Level of evidence: 3iii]
Another study from France reviewed the use of cytoreductive surgery and HIPEC for the treatment of patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumors who had disease limited to the abdomen. In 107 patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumors, 48 had no extraperitoneal metastasis and underwent cytoreductive surgery. Of 48 patients, 38 patients (79%) received preoperative and/or postoperative chemotherapy, and 23 patients (48%) received postoperative whole-abdominopelvic radiation therapy. Intraperitoneal chemotherapy was administered to 11 patients (23%); two patients received early postoperative intraperitoneal chemotherapy (EPIC) and nine patients received HIPEC. After a median follow-up of 30 months, the median OS of the entire cohort was 42 months. The 2-year OS rate was 72%, and the 5-year OS rate was 19%. The 2-year DFS rate was 30%, and the 5-year DFS rate was 12%. Whole-abdominopelvic radiation therapy was the only variable associated with longer peritoneal recurrence-free survival and DFS after cytoreductive surgery. Of 11 patients who received intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC or EPIC), six different chemotherapy regimens were used. The survival or outcome of this group is not reported in the manuscript. The influence of HIPEC/EPIC on OS and DFS was not statistically significant, but standardized regimens were not used in all patients, making results difficult to determine.[277]
The Center for International Blood and Marrow Transplant Research analyzed patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumor in their registry who received consolidation with high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell reconstitution.[278] While this retrospective registry analysis suggested some benefit to this approach, other investigators have abandoned the approach because of excessive toxicity and lack of efficacy.[267]
A single-institution study reported that five of five patients with recurrent desmoplastic small round cell tumor had partial responses to treatment with the combination of vinorelbine, cyclophosphamide, and temsirolimus.[279]
Extra-renal (extracranial) rhabdoid tumor
Malignant rhabdoid tumors were first described in children with renal tumors in 1981 (refer to the Rhabdoid Tumors of the Kidney section in the PDQ summary on Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors Treatment for more information) and were later found in a variety of extra-renal sites. These tumors are uncommon and highly malignant, especially in children younger than 2 years.
Extra-renal (extracranial) rhabdoid tumors account for 2% of soft tissue sarcoma in patients younger than 20 years (refer to Table 1).
Molecular features
The first sizeable series of 26 children with extra-renal extracranial malignant rhabdoid tumor of soft tissues came from patients enrolled on the Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Studies I through III during a review of pathology material. Only five patients (19%) were alive without disease.[280] Later, investigation of children with atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors of the brain, as well as those with renal and extra-renal malignant rhabdoid tumors, found germline and acquired mutations of the SMARCB1 gene in all 29 tumors tested.[281] Rhabdoid tumors may be associated with germline mutations of the SMARCB1 gene and may be inherited from an apparently unaffected parent.[282] This observation was extended to 32 malignant rhabdoid tumors at all sites in patients whose mean age at diagnosis was 12 months.[283]
Prognosis
In a SEER study of 229 patients with renal, central nervous system (CNS), and extra-renal malignant rhabdoid tumor, patients aged 2 to 18 years, limited extent of tumor, and delivery of radiation therapy were shown to affect the outcome favorably compared with other patients (P < .002 for each comparison). Site of the primary tumor was not prognostically significant. OS at 5 years was 33%.[284]
Treatment
Treatment options for extra-renal (extracranial) rhabdoid tumor include the following:[285][Level of evidence: 3iA]; [286,287][Level of evidence: 3iiiB]
- Surgical removal when possible.
- Chemotherapy as used for soft tissue sarcomas (but no single regimen is currently accepted as best).
- Radiation therapy.
Responses to alisertib have been documented in four patients with CNS atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors.[288] (Refer to the PDQ summary on Childhood Central Nervous System Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor Treatment summary for more information about CNS atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors.)
Treatment options under clinical evaluation
Information about NCI-supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following are examples of national and/or institutional clinical trials that are currently being conducted:
Neoplasms with perivascular epithelioid cell differentiation (PEComas)
Risk factors and molecular features
Benign PEComas are common in tuberous sclerosis, an autosomal dominant syndrome that also predisposes to renal cell cancer and brain tumors. Tuberous sclerosis is caused by germline inactivation of either TSC1 (9q34) or TSC2 (16p13.3), and the same tumor suppressor genes are inactivated somatically in sporadic PEComas.[289] Inactivation of either gene results in stimulation of the mTOR pathway, providing the basis for the treatment of nonsurgically curable tumors with similar genetic inactivation (lymphangioleiomyomatosis and angiomyolipoma) with mTOR inhibitors.[290,291] A small proportion of PEComas have TFE3 rearrangements with fusions involving various genes, including SFPQ/PSF and RAD51B.[292]
Clinical presentation
PEComas occur in various rare gastrointestinal, pulmonary, gynecologic, and genitourinary sites. Soft tissue, visceral, and gynecologic PEComas are more commonly seen in middle-aged female patients and are usually not associated with the tuberous sclerosis complex.[293] The disease course may be indolent.
Prognosis
Most PEComas have a benign clinical course, but malignant behavior has been reported and can be predicted based on the size of the tumor, mitotic rate, and presence of necrosis.[294]
Treatment
Treatment options have not been defined. Treatment may include surgery or observation followed by surgery when the tumor is large.[295]
In tumors with evidence of mTORC1 activation and TSC loss, including lymphangioleiomyomatosis and angiomyolipoma,[290] clinical activity using mTOR inhibitors, such as sirolimus, has been well documented. Similarly, three adult patients with PEComas responded to sirolimus.[296]
Undifferentiated/Unclassified Sarcoma
From 1972 to 2006, patients with undifferentiated soft tissue sarcoma were eligible for participation in rhabdomyosarcoma trials coordinated by the Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group and the COG. The rationale was the observation that patients with undifferentiated soft tissue sarcoma had sites of disease and outcomes that were similar to those in patients with alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma. Therapeutic trials for adults with soft tissue sarcoma include patients with undifferentiated soft tissue sarcoma and other histologies, which are treated similarly, using ifosfamide and doxorubicin, and sometimes with other chemotherapy agents, surgery, and radiation therapy.
In the COG ARST0332 (NCT00346164) trial, patients with high-grade undifferentiated sarcoma were treated with an ifosfamide and doxorubicin-based regimen and were treated with rhabdomyosarcoma-directed therapies in previous Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group studies, with a 5-year survival estimate for nonmetastatic patients of 72%.[297][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
In a report of 32 patients with undifferentiated soft tissue sarcomas who were enrolled on the ARST0332 (NCT00346164) trial, the median age at enrollment was 13.6 years, and two-thirds of the patients were male. The most common primary sites were the paraspinal region and extremities. Five patients presented with metastatic disease.[298]
- The 5-year EFS rate was 71%, and the OS rate was 83%.
- Of the nine children with low-risk disease (localized low-grade resected disease or localized high-grade disease <5 cm resected with negative margins) who were treated with surgery or radiation therapy only, the 5-year EFS rate was 65% and the OS rate was 100%, suggesting that patients with recurrent disease can be salvaged with additional therapy.
- The remaining 23 patients had either intermediate-risk disease (resected high-grade tumor >5 cm, unresected high-grade tumor >5 cm) or high-risk disease (metastasis to lymph nodes or distant sites) and were treated with chemoradiation therapy and delayed surgery when feasible. The 5-year EFS rate was 73%, and the OS estimate was 77%.
- Copy number aberrations were common, most frequently involving loss of 1p (25%), gain of 1q (25%), gain of chromosome 8 (25%), and gain of chromosome 2 (16%). These alterations were more commonly seen in patients with intermediate-risk or high-risk tumors, and there was a strong association between loss of chromosome 1p or gain of chromosome 1q and inferior clinical outcomes. Co-occurrence of 1q gain and 1p loss was associated with a particularly poor clinical outcome (5-year EFS and OS of 20%). Next-generation sequencing identified oncogenic fusions in eight of ten samples, which included BCOR and CIC rearrangements, as well as COL1A1-PDGFB, KIAA1549-BRAF, and SAMD-SASH1 fusions.
Undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma/malignant fibrous histiocytoma (high-grade)
At one time, malignant fibrous histiocytoma was the single most common histotype among adults with soft tissue sarcomas. Since it was first recognized in the early 1960s, malignant fibrous histiocytoma has been plagued by controversy in terms of both its histogenesis and its validity as a clinicopathologic entity. The latest WHO classification no longer includes malignant fibrous histiocytoma as a distinct diagnostic category but rather as a subtype of an undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma.[4,299]
This entity accounts for 2% to 6% of all childhood soft tissue sarcomas.[300]
Molecular features
Undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma was most often called malignant fibrous histiocytoma in the past. Historically, this entity has been difficult to evaluate because of the shifting diagnostic criteria. Analysis of 70 cases diagnosed as malignant fibrous histiocytosis of no specific type, storiform or pleomorphic malignant fibrous histiocytoma, pleomorphic sarcoma, or undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma showed a highly complex karyotype with no specific recurrent aberrations.[301]
Undifferentiated sarcomas with 12q13–15 amplification, including MDM2 and CDK4, are best classified as dedifferentiated liposarcomas;[301] the relationship between this tumor and the family of undifferentiated/unclassified tumors with spindle cell morphology remains relatively undefined.
Risk factors
These tumors can arise in previously irradiated sites or as a second malignancy in patients with retinoblastoma.[302]
Clinical presentation and treatment
These tumors occur mainly in the second decade of life. In a series of ten patients, the median age was 10 years and the tumor was most commonly located in the extremities. In this series, all tumors were localized and five of nine (for whom follow-up was available) were alive and in first remission.[300] In another series of 17 pediatric patients with malignant fibrous histiocytoma, the median age at diagnosis was 5 years and the extremities were involved in eight cases.[303] All patients with metastatic disease died and two patients experienced a clinical response to a doxorubicin-based regimen.
(Refer to the PDQ summary on Osteosarcoma and Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma of Bone Treatment for more information about the treatment of malignant fibrous histiocytoma of bone.)
Undifferentiated round cell sarcomas withBCOR-CCNB3rearrangements
(Refer to the Undifferentiated Round Cell Sarcomas With BCOR-CCNB3 Rearrangements and Genomics of Ewing Sarcoma sections of the PDQ summary on Ewing Sarcoma Treatment for more information.)
Undifferentiated round cell sarcomas withCIC-DUX4rearrangements
(Refer to the Undifferentiated Round Cell Sarcomas With CIC-DUX4 Rearrangements and Genomics of Ewing Sarcoma sections of the PDQ summary on Ewing Sarcoma Treatment for more information.)
Undifferentiated round cell sarcomas withCIC-NUTM1rearrangements
(Refer to the Undifferentiated Round Cell Sarcomas With CIC-NUTM1 Rearrangements section of the PDQ summary on Ewing Sarcoma Treatment for more information.)
Vascular Tumors
Vascular tumors vary from hemangiomas, which are always considered benign, to angiosarcomas, which are highly malignant.[304] Malignant vascular tumors include the following subtypes:
- Epithelioid hemangioendothelioma.
- Angiosarcoma of the soft tissue.
Epithelioid hemangioendothelioma
Incidence and outcome
This tumor was first described in soft tissue by Weiss and Enzinger in 1982. Epithelioid hemangioendotheliomas can occur at younger ages, but the peak incidence is in the fourth and fifth decades of life. The tumors can have an indolent or very aggressive course, with an overall survival rate of 73% at 5 years. There are case reports of patients with untreated multiple lesions who have a very benign course compared with other patients who have a very aggressive course. Some pathologists have tried to stratify patients to evaluate risks and adjust treatment, but more research is needed.[305,306,307,308,309,310,311]
A multi-institutional case series reported on 24 patients aged 2 to 26 years with epithelioid hemangioendothelioma.[312][Level of evidence: 3iiiDii] Most patients presented with multiorgan disease. Progression was seen in 63% of patients, with a mean time to progression of 18.4 months (range, 0–72 months).
The presence of effusions, tumor size larger than 3 cm, and a high mitotic index (>3 mitoses/50 high-power fields) have been associated with unfavorable outcomes.[307]
Histopathology and molecular features
A WWTR1-CAMTA1 gene fusion has been found in a large percentage of patients; less commonly, a YAP1-TFE3 gene fusion has been reported.[305] These fusions are not directly targetable with current medicines. Monoclonality has been described in multiple liver lesions, suggesting a metastatic process.
Histologically, these lesions are characterized as epithelioid lesions arranged in nests, strands, and trabecular patterns, with infrequent vascular spaces. Features that may be associated with aggressive clinical behavior include cellular atypia, one or more mitoses per 10 high-power fields, an increased proportion of spindled cells, focal necrosis, and metaplastic bone formation.[307]
The number of pediatric patients reported in the literature is limited.
Clinical presentation and diagnostic evaluation
Common sites of involvement are liver alone (21%), liver plus lung (18%), lung alone (12%), and bone alone (14%).[307,313,314] Clinical presentation depends on the site of involvement, as follows:
- Liver: Hepatic nodules have central vascularity on ultrasound, contrast-enhancing lesions by computed tomography, and low T1 signal and moderate T2 signal on magnetic resonance imaging. These may be incidental findings in asymptomatic patients, but most patients commonly present with signs or symptoms of cholestasis, including pruritus, jaundice, or scleral icterus.
- Lung: Pulmonary epithelioid hemangioendothelioma may be an asymptomatic finding on chest x-ray or be associated with pleuritic pain, hemoptysis, anemia, and fibrosis.
- Bone: Bone metastasis may be associated with pathologic fracture. On x-rays, they are well-defined osteolytic lesions and can be multiple or solitary.
- Soft tissue: Thirty percent of soft tissue cases are associated with metastases, and when present, can have a very aggressive course, with limited response to chemotherapy.
- Skin: Cutaneous lesions can be raised and nodular or can be warm, red-brown plaques.
Treatment of epithelioid hemangioendothelioma
Treatment options for epithelioid hemangioendothelioma include the following:
- Observation.
- Surgery.
- Immunotherapy.
- Targeted therapy.
- Chemotherapy.
- Radiation therapy.
For indolent cases, observation is warranted. For more aggressive cases, multiple medications have been used, including interferon, thalidomide, sorafenib, pazopanib, and sirolimus.[315] The most aggressive cases are treated with angiosarcoma-type chemotherapy. Surgery is performed when resection is possible. Liver transplant has been used with aggressive liver lesions, both with and without metastases.[307,316,317,318,319]
A multi-institutional case series reported on 24 patients aged 2 to 26 years with epithelioid hemangioendothelioma.[312][Level of evidence: 3iiiDii] Three patients who were treated with sirolimus achieved stable disease or a partial response for more than 2.5 years.
Patients or families who desire additional disease-directed therapy should consider entering trials of novel therapeutic approaches because no standard agents have demonstrated clinically significant activity.
Regardless of whether a decision is made to pursue disease-directed therapy at the time of progression, palliative care remains a central focus of management. This ensures that quality of life is maximized while attempting to reduce symptoms and stress related to the terminal illness.
Treatment options under clinical evaluation for epithelioid hemangioendothelioma
Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:
- NCT03148275 (Trametinib in Treating Patients with Epithelioid Hemangioendothelioma That Is Metastatic, Locally Advanced, or Cannot Be Removed by Surgery): This is a phase II trial assessing the efficacy of trametinib, with patient-reported outcomes as secondary aims.
Current Clinical Trials
Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.
Angiosarcoma of the soft tissue
Incidence
Angiosarcoma is a rare (accounting for 2% of sarcomas), aggressive, vascular tumor that can arise in any part of the body, but is more common in soft tissues. Angiosarcoma has an estimated incidence of 2 cases per 1 million people; in the United States, it annually affects approximately 600 people who are typically aged 60 to 70 years.[320]
Angiosarcomas are extremely rare in children and it is unclear if the pathophysiology of this tumor is different in the pediatric population. Cases have been reported in neonates and toddlers, with presentation of multiple cutaneous lesions and liver lesions, some of which are GLUT1 positive.[321,322,323,324] Most angiosarcomas involve the skin and superficial soft tissue, although the liver, spleen, and lung can be affected; bone is rarely affected.
Risk factors
Established risk factors include the following:[325]
- Vinyl chloride exposure.
- Radiation exposure.
- Chronic lymphedema from any cause, including Stewart-Treves syndrome.
Histopathology and molecular features
Angiosarcomas are largely aneuploid tumors. The rare cases of angiosarcoma that arise from benign lesions such as hemangiomas have a distinct pathway that needs to be investigated. MYC amplification is seen in radiation-induced angiosarcoma. KDR-VEGFR2 mutations and FLT4-VEGFR3 amplifications have been seen with a frequency of less than 50%.[325]
Histopathologic diagnosis can be very difficult because there can be areas of varied atypia. The common feature is an irregular network of channels in a dissective pattern along dermal collagen bundles. There is varied cellular shape, size, mitosis, endothelial multilayering, and papillary formation. Epithelioid cells can also be present. Necrosis and hemorrhage are common. Tumors stain for factor VIII, CD31, and CD34. Some liver lesions can mimic infantile hemangiomas and have focal GLUT1 positivity. Nomenclature of these liver lesions has been difficult and confusing with use of outdated terminology proposed in 1971 (e.g., type I hemangioendothelioma: infantile hemangioma; type II hemangioendothelioma: low-grade angiosarcoma; type III hemangioendothelioma: high-grade angiosarcoma).[322]
Treatment of angiosarcoma of the soft tissue
Treatment options for angiosarcoma of the soft tissue include the following:
- Surgery (localized disease).
- Radiation therapy (localized cutaneous disease in adults).
- Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy (metastatic disease).
Localized disease can be cured by aggressive surgery. Complete surgical excision appears to be crucial for the long-term survival of patients with angiosarcoma and lymphangiosarcoma despite evidence of tumor shrinkage in some patients who were treated with local or systemic therapy.[323,326,327,328] A review of 222 patients (median age, 62 years; range, age 15–90 years) showed an overall disease-specific survival (DSS) rate of 38% at 5 years. The 5-year DSS rate was 44% in 138 patients with localized, resected tumors but only 16% in 43 patients with metastases at diagnosis.[328] Data on liver transplant for localized angiosarcomas are limited.[329][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
Localized disease, especially cutaneous angiosarcoma, can be treated with radiation therapy. Most of these reported cases are in adults.[330]
Multimodal treatment with surgery, systemic chemotherapy, and radiation therapy is used for metastatic disease, although it is rarely curative.[331,332] Disease control is the objective in metastatic angiosarcoma, with published progression-free survival between 3 months and 7 months [333] and a median overall survival (OS) of 14 months to 18 months.[334] In both adults and children, 5-year OS rates between 20% and 35% are reported.[323,324,335]
In one child diagnosed with angiosarcoma secondary to malignant transformation from infantile hemangioma, response to treatment with bevacizumab, a monoclonal antibody against vascular endothelial growth factor, combined with systemic chemotherapy, has been reported.[321,331] A report of eight cases of liver angiosarcoma in children highlighted the misuse of the term hemangioendothelioma and the importance of early diagnosis and treatment of these tumors.[336]
Biologic agents that inhibit angiogenesis have shown activity in adults with angiosarcoma.[322,335]
Patients or families who desire additional disease-directed therapy should consider entering trials of novel therapeutic approaches because no standard agents have demonstrated clinically significant activity.
Regardless of whether a decision is made to pursue disease-directed therapy at the time of progression, palliative care remains a central focus of management. This ensures that quality of life is maximized while attempting to reduce symptoms and stress related to the terminal illness.
Treatment options under clinical evaluation for angiosarcoma of the soft tissue
Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:
- NCT02834013 (Nivolumab and Ipilimumab in Treating Patients With Rare Tumors): This is a phase II study of nivolumab and ipilimumab to treat patients with rare tumors. Immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies such as nivolumab and ipilimumab may help the body's immune system attack the cancer and may interfere with the ability of the tumor cells to grow and spread.
Current Clinical Trials
Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.
Current Clinical Trials
Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.
References:
-
Ferrari A, Casanova M, Collini P, et al.: Adult-type soft tissue sarcomas in pediatric-age patients: experience at the Istituto Nazionale Tumori in Milan. J Clin Oncol 23 (18): 4021-30, 2005.
-
Stanelle EJ, Christison-Lagay ER, Sidebotham EL, et al.: Prognostic factors and survival in pediatric and adolescent liposarcoma. Sarcoma 2012: 870910, 2012.
-
Alaggio R, Coffin CM, Weiss SW, et al.: Liposarcomas in young patients: a study of 82 cases occurring in patients younger than 22 years of age. Am J Surg Pathol 33 (5): 645-58, 2009.
-
Fletcher CDM, Bridge JA, Hogendoorn P, et al., eds.: WHO Classification of Tumours of Soft Tissue and Bone. 4th ed. Lyon, France: IARC Press, 2013.
-
Sreekantaiah C, Karakousis CP, Leong SP, et al.: Cytogenetic findings in liposarcoma correlate with histopathologic subtypes. Cancer 69 (10): 2484-95, 1992.
-
Sugiura H, Takahashi M, Katagiri H, et al.: Additional wide resection of malignant soft tissue tumors. Clin Orthop (394): 201-10, 2002.
-
Cecchetto G, Guglielmi M, Inserra A, et al.: Primary re-excision: the Italian experience in patients with localized soft-tissue sarcomas. Pediatr Surg Int 17 (7): 532-4, 2001.
-
Chui CH, Spunt SL, Liu T, et al.: Is reexcision in pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma necessary after an initial unplanned resection? J Pediatr Surg 37 (10): 1424-9, 2002.
-
Bahig H, Roberge D, Bosch W, et al.: Agreement among RTOG sarcoma radiation oncologists in contouring suspicious peritumoral edema for preoperative radiation therapy of soft tissue sarcoma of the extremity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 86 (2): 298-303, 2013.
-
Baldini EH, Wang D, Haas RL, et al.: Treatment Guidelines for Preoperative Radiation Therapy for Retroperitoneal Sarcoma: Preliminary Consensus of an International Expert Panel. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 92 (3): 602-12, 2015.
-
La Quaglia MP, Spiro SA, Ghavimi F, et al.: Liposarcoma in patients younger than or equal to 22 years of age. Cancer 72 (10): 3114-9, 1993.
-
Lee ATJ, Thway K, Huang PH, et al.: Clinical and Molecular Spectrum of Liposarcoma. J Clin Oncol 36 (2): 151-159, 2018.
-
Beane JD, Yang JC, White D, et al.: Efficacy of adjuvant radiation therapy in the treatment of soft tissue sarcoma of the extremity: 20-year follow-up of a randomized prospective trial. Ann Surg Oncol 21 (8): 2484-9, 2014.
-
Ferrari A, Casanova M, Spreafico F, et al.: Childhood liposarcoma: a single-institutional twenty-year experience. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 16 (5): 415-21, 1999 Sep-Oct.
-
Cecchetto G, Alaggio R, Dall'Igna P, et al.: Localized unresectable non-rhabdo soft tissue sarcomas of the extremities in pediatric age: results from the Italian studies. Cancer 104 (9): 2006-12, 2005.
-
Huh WW, Yuen C, Munsell M, et al.: Liposarcoma in children and young adults: a multi-institutional experience. Pediatr Blood Cancer 57 (7): 1142-6, 2011.
-
Gronchi A, Bui BN, Bonvalot S, et al.: Phase II clinical trial of neoadjuvant trabectedin in patients with advanced localized myxoid liposarcoma. Ann Oncol 23 (3): 771-6, 2012.
-
Demetri GD, von Mehren M, Jones RL, et al.: Efficacy and Safety of Trabectedin or Dacarbazine for Metastatic Liposarcoma or Leiomyosarcoma After Failure of Conventional Chemotherapy: Results of a Phase III Randomized Multicenter Clinical Trial. J Clin Oncol 34 (8): 786-93, 2016.
-
Baruchel S, Pappo A, Krailo M, et al.: A phase 2 trial of trabectedin in children with recurrent rhabdomyosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma and non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas: a report from the Children's Oncology Group. Eur J Cancer 48 (4): 579-85, 2012.
-
Demetri GD, Schöffski P, Grignani G, et al.: Activity of Eribulin in Patients With Advanced Liposarcoma Demonstrated in a Subgroup Analysis From a Randomized Phase III Study of Eribulin Versus Dacarbazine. J Clin Oncol 35 (30): 3433-3439, 2017.
-
Schafer ES, Rau RE, Berg S, et al.: A phase 1 study of eribulin mesylate (E7389), a novel microtubule-targeting chemotherapeutic agent, in children with refractory or recurrent solid tumors: A Children's Oncology Group Phase 1 Consortium study (ADVL1314). Pediatr Blood Cancer 65 (8): e27066, 2018.
-
Wang L, Motoi T, Khanin R, et al.: Identification of a novel, recurrent HEY1-NCOA2 fusion in mesenchymal chondrosarcoma based on a genome-wide screen of exon-level expression data. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 51 (2): 127-39, 2012.
-
Nyquist KB, Panagopoulos I, Thorsen J, et al.: Whole-transcriptome sequencing identifies novel IRF2BP2-CDX1 fusion gene brought about by translocation t(1;5)(q42;q32) in mesenchymal chondrosarcoma. PLoS One 7 (11): e49705, 2012.
-
Frezza AM, Cesari M, Baumhoer D, et al.: Mesenchymal chondrosarcoma: prognostic factors and outcome in 113 patients. A European Musculoskeletal Oncology Society study. Eur J Cancer 51 (3): 374-81, 2015.
-
Schneiderman BA, Kliethermes SA, Nystrom LM: Survival in Mesenchymal Chondrosarcoma Varies Based on Age and Tumor Location: A Survival Analysis of the SEER Database. Clin Orthop Relat Res 475 (3): 799-805, 2017.
-
Kawaguchi S, Weiss I, Lin PP, et al.: Radiation therapy is associated with fewer recurrences in mesenchymal chondrosarcoma. Clin Orthop Relat Res 472 (3): 856-64, 2014.
-
Dantonello TM, Int-Veen C, Leuschner I, et al.: Mesenchymal chondrosarcoma of soft tissues and bone in children, adolescents, and young adults: experiences of the CWS and COSS study groups. Cancer 112 (11): 2424-31, 2008.
-
Bishop MW, Somerville JM, Bahrami A, et al.: Mesenchymal Chondrosarcoma in Children and Young Adults: A Single Institution Retrospective Review. Sarcoma 2015: 608279, 2015.
-
Morioka H, Takahashi S, Araki N, et al.: Results of sub-analysis of a phase 2 study on trabectedin treatment for extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma and mesenchymal chondrosarcoma. BMC Cancer 16: 479, 2016.
-
Thampi S, Matthay KK, Boscardin WJ, et al.: Clinical Features and Outcomes Differ between Skeletal and Extraskeletal Osteosarcoma. Sarcoma 2014: 902620, 2014.
-
Jour G, Wang L, Middha S, et al.: The molecular landscape of extraskeletal osteosarcoma: A clinicopathological and molecular biomarker study. J Pathol Clin Res 2 (1): 9-20, 2016.
-
Sordillo PP, Hajdu SI, Magill GB, et al.: Extraosseous osteogenic sarcoma. A review of 48 patients. Cancer 51 (4): 727-34, 1983.
-
Paludo J, Fritchie K, Haddox CL, et al.: Extraskeletal Osteosarcoma: Outcomes and the Role of Chemotherapy. Am J Clin Oncol 41 (9): 832-837, 2018.
-
Longhi A, Bielack SS, Grimer R, et al.: Extraskeletal osteosarcoma: A European Musculoskeletal Oncology Society study on 266 patients. Eur J Cancer 74: 9-16, 2017.
-
Nieuwenhuis MH, Casparie M, Mathus-Vliegen LM, et al.: A nation-wide study comparing sporadic and familial adenomatous polyposis-related desmoid-type fibromatoses. Int J Cancer 129 (1): 256-61, 2011.
-
Rossato M, Rigotti M, Grazia M, et al.: Congenital hypertrophy of the retinal pigment epithelium (CHRPE) and familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). Acta Ophthalmol Scand 74 (4): 338-42, 1996.
-
Baker RH, Heinemann MH, Miller HH, et al.: Hyperpigmented lesions of the retinal pigment epithelium in familial adenomatous polyposis. Am J Med Genet 31 (2): 427-35, 1988.
-
Kattentidt Mouravieva AA, Geurts-Giele IR, de Krijger RR, et al.: Identification of Familial Adenomatous Polyposis carriers among children with desmoid tumours. Eur J Cancer 48 (12): 1867-74, 2012.
-
Wang WL, Nero C, Pappo A, et al.: CTNNB1 genotyping and APC screening in pediatric desmoid tumors: a proposed algorithm. Pediatr Dev Pathol 15 (5): 361-7, 2012 Sep-Oct.
-
Lewis JJ, Boland PJ, Leung DH, et al.: The enigma of desmoid tumors. Ann Surg 229 (6): 866-72; discussion 872-3, 1999.
-
Lazar AJ, Tuvin D, Hajibashi S, et al.: Specific mutations in the beta-catenin gene (CTNNB1) correlate with local recurrence in sporadic desmoid tumors. Am J Pathol 173 (5): 1518-27, 2008.
-
Faulkner LB, Hajdu SI, Kher U, et al.: Pediatric desmoid tumor: retrospective analysis of 63 cases. J Clin Oncol 13 (11): 2813-8, 1995.
-
Gounder MM, Mahoney MR, Van Tine BA, et al.: Sorafenib for Advanced and Refractory Desmoid Tumors. N Engl J Med 379 (25): 2417-2428, 2018.
-
Merchant NB, Lewis JJ, Woodruff JM, et al.: Extremity and trunk desmoid tumors: a multifactorial analysis of outcome. Cancer 86 (10): 2045-52, 1999.
-
Honeyman JN, Theilen TM, Knowles MA, et al.: Desmoid fibromatosis in children and adolescents: a conservative approach to management. J Pediatr Surg 48 (1): 62-6, 2013.
-
Bonvalot S, Ternès N, Fiore M, et al.: Spontaneous regression of primary abdominal wall desmoid tumors: more common than previously thought. Ann Surg Oncol 20 (13): 4096-102, 2013.
-
Bonvalot S, Eldweny H, Haddad V, et al.: Extra-abdominal primary fibromatosis: Aggressive management could be avoided in a subgroup of patients. Eur J Surg Oncol 34 (4): 462-8, 2008.
-
Merchant TE, Nguyen D, Walter AW, et al.: Long-term results with radiation therapy for pediatric desmoid tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 47 (5): 1267-71, 2000.
-
Zelefsky MJ, Harrison LB, Shiu MH, et al.: Combined surgical resection and iridium 192 implantation for locally advanced and recurrent desmoid tumors. Cancer 67 (2): 380-4, 1991.
-
Weiss AJ, Lackman RD: Low-dose chemotherapy of desmoid tumors. Cancer 64 (6): 1192-4, 1989.
-
Klein WA, Miller HH, Anderson M, et al.: The use of indomethacin, sulindac, and tamoxifen for the treatment of desmoid tumors associated with familial polyposis. Cancer 60 (12): 2863-8, 1987.
-
Soto-Miranda MA, Sandoval JA, Rao B, et al.: Surgical treatment of pediatric desmoid tumors. A 12-year, single-center experience. Ann Surg Oncol 20 (11): 3384-90, 2013.
-
Orbach D, Brennan B, Bisogno G, et al.: The EpSSG NRSTS 2005 treatment protocol for desmoid-type fibromatosis in children: an international prospective case series. Lancet Child Adolesc Health 1 (4): 284-292, 2017.
-
Gladdy RA, Gupta AA: If Active Surveillance is the Standard of Care for Desmoid Patients, When Should Intervention be Considered? Ann Surg Oncol 26 (13): 4185-4187, 2019.
-
Skapek SX, Ferguson WS, Granowetter L, et al.: Vinblastine and methotrexate for desmoid fibromatosis in children: results of a Pediatric Oncology Group Phase II Trial. J Clin Oncol 25 (5): 501-6, 2007.
-
Gega M, Yanagi H, Yoshikawa R, et al.: Successful chemotherapeutic modality of doxorubicin plus dacarbazine for the treatment of desmoid tumors in association with familial adenomatous polyposis. J Clin Oncol 24 (1): 102-5, 2006.
-
Constantinidou A, Jones RL, Scurr M, et al.: Pegylated liposomal doxorubicin, an effective, well-tolerated treatment for refractory aggressive fibromatosis. Eur J Cancer 45 (17): 2930-4, 2009.
-
Ananth P, Werger A, Voss S, et al.: Liposomal doxorubicin: Effective treatment for pediatric desmoid fibromatosis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 64 (7): , 2017.
-
Ferrari A, Orbach D, Affinita MC, et al.: Evidence of hydroxyurea activity in children with pretreated desmoid-type fibromatosis: A new option in the armamentarium of systemic therapies. Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (1): e27472, 2019.
-
Agresta L, Kim H, Turpin BK, et al.: Pazopanib therapy for desmoid tumors in adolescent and young adult patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer 65 (6): e26968, 2018.
-
Toulmonde M, Pulido M, Ray-Coquard I, et al.: Pazopanib or methotrexate-vinblastine combination chemotherapy in adult patients with progressive desmoid tumours (DESMOPAZ): a non-comparative, randomised, open-label, multicentre, phase 2 study. Lancet Oncol 20 (9): 1263-1272, 2019.
-
Meazza C, Bisogno G, Gronchi A, et al.: Aggressive fibromatosis in children and adolescents: the Italian experience. Cancer 116 (1): 233-40, 2010.
-
Hansmann A, Adolph C, Vogel T, et al.: High-dose tamoxifen and sulindac as first-line treatment for desmoid tumors. Cancer 100 (3): 612-20, 2004.
-
Skapek SX, Anderson JR, Hill DA, et al.: Safety and efficacy of high-dose tamoxifen and sulindac for desmoid tumor in children: results of a Children's Oncology Group (COG) phase II study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (7): 1108-12, 2013.
-
Rutenberg MS, Indelicato DJ, Knapik JA, et al.: External-beam radiotherapy for pediatric and young adult desmoid tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer 57 (3): 435-42, 2011.
-
Shang H, Braggio D, Lee YJ, et al.: Targeting the Notch pathway: A potential therapeutic approach for desmoid tumors. Cancer 121 (22): 4088-96, 2015.
-
Messersmith WA, Shapiro GI, Cleary JM, et al.: A Phase I, dose-finding study in patients with advanced solid malignancies of the oral γ-secretase inhibitor PF-03084014. Clin Cancer Res 21 (1): 60-7, 2015.
-
Buckley PG, Mantripragada KK, Benetkiewicz M, et al.: A full-coverage, high-resolution human chromosome 22 genomic microarray for clinical and research applications. Hum Mol Genet 11 (25): 3221-9, 2002.
-
Valdivielso-Ramos M, Torrelo A, Campos M, et al.: Pediatric dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans in Madrid, Spain: multi-institutional outcomes. Pediatr Dermatol 31 (6): 676-82, 2014 Nov-Dec.
-
Gooskens SL, Oranje AP, van Adrichem LN, et al.: Imatinib mesylate for children with dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans (DFSP). Pediatr Blood Cancer 55 (2): 369-73, 2010.
-
Rubio GA, Alvarado A, Gerth DJ, et al.: Incidence and Outcomes of Dermatofibrosarcoma Protuberans in the US Pediatric Population. J Craniofac Surg 28 (1): 182-184, 2017.
-
Meguerditchian AN, Wang J, Lema B, et al.: Wide excision or Mohs micrographic surgery for the treatment of primary dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans. Am J Clin Oncol 33 (3): 300-3, 2010.
-
Dagan R, Morris CG, Zlotecki RA, et al.: Radiotherapy in the treatment of dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans. Am J Clin Oncol 28 (6): 537-9, 2005.
-
Sun LM, Wang CJ, Huang CC, et al.: Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: treatment results of 35 cases. Radiother Oncol 57 (2): 175-81, 2000.
-
Price VE, Fletcher JA, Zielenska M, et al.: Imatinib mesylate: an attractive alternative in young children with large, surgically challenging dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans. Pediatr Blood Cancer 44 (5): 511-5, 2005.
-
McArthur GA, Demetri GD, van Oosterom A, et al.: Molecular and clinical analysis of locally advanced dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans treated with imatinib: Imatinib Target Exploration Consortium Study B2225. J Clin Oncol 23 (4): 866-73, 2005.
-
Rutkowski P, Van Glabbeke M, Rankin CJ, et al.: Imatinib mesylate in advanced dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: pooled analysis of two phase II clinical trials. J Clin Oncol 28 (10): 1772-9, 2010.
-
Miller SJ, Alam M, Andersen JS, et al.: Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 10 (3): 312-8, 2012.
-
Kovach SJ, Fischer AC, Katzman PJ, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors. J Surg Oncol 94 (5): 385-91, 2006.
-
Brodlie M, Barwick SC, Wood KM, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumours of the respiratory tract: paediatric case series with varying clinical presentations. J Laryngol Otol 125 (8): 865-8, 2011.
-
Xiao Y, Zhou S, Ma C, et al.: Radiological and histopathological features of hepatic inflammatory myofibroblastic tumour: analysis of 10 cases. Clin Radiol 68 (11): 1114-20, 2013.
-
Karnak I, Senocak ME, Ciftci AO, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor in children: diagnosis and treatment. J Pediatr Surg 36 (6): 908-12, 2001.
-
Collin M, Charles A, Barker A, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumour of the bladder in children: a review. J Pediatr Urol 11 (5): 239-45, 2015.
-
Coffin CM, Hornick JL, Fletcher CD: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor: comparison of clinicopathologic, histologic, and immunohistochemical features including ALK expression in atypical and aggressive cases. Am J Surg Pathol 31 (4): 509-20, 2007.
-
Lovly CM, Gupta A, Lipson D, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors harbor multiple potentially actionable kinase fusions. Cancer Discov 4 (8): 889-95, 2014.
-
Devaney KO, Lafeir DJ, Triantafyllou A, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors of the head and neck: evaluation of clinicopathologic and prognostic features. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 269 (12): 2461-5, 2012.
-
Mehta B, Mascarenhas L, Zhou S, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors in childhood. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 30 (7): 640-5, 2013.
-
Favini F, Resti AG, Collini P, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor of the conjunctiva: response to chemotherapy with low-dose methotrexate and vinorelbine. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (3): 483-5, 2010.
-
Kube S, Vokuhl C, Dantonello T, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors-A retrospective analysis of the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe. Pediatr Blood Cancer 65 (6): e27012, 2018.
-
Doski JJ, Priebe CJ, Driessnack M, et al.: Corticosteroids in the management of unresected plasma cell granuloma (inflammatory pseudotumor) of the lung. J Pediatr Surg 26 (9): 1064-6, 1991.
-
Diop B, Konate I, Ka S, et al.: Mesenteric myofibroblastic tumor: NSAID therapy after incomplete resection. J Visc Surg 148 (4): e311-4, 2011.
-
Dalton BG, Thomas PG, Sharp NE, et al.: Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors in children. J Pediatr Surg 51 (4): 541-4, 2016.
-
Butrynski JE, D'Adamo DR, Hornick JL, et al.: Crizotinib in ALK-rearranged inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor. N Engl J Med 363 (18): 1727-33, 2010.
-
Mossé YP, Lim MS, Voss SD, et al.: Safety and activity of crizotinib for paediatric patients with refractory solid tumours or anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: a Children's Oncology Group phase 1 consortium study. Lancet Oncol 14 (6): 472-80, 2013.
-
Gaudichon J, Jeanne-Pasquier C, Deparis M, et al.: Complete and Repeated Response of a Metastatic ALK-rearranged Inflammatory Myofibroblastic Tumor to Crizotinib in a Teenage Girl. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 38 (4): 308-11, 2016.
-
Mossé YP, Voss SD, Lim MS, et al.: Targeting ALK With Crizotinib in Pediatric Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma and Inflammatory Myofibroblastic Tumor: A Children's Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 35 (28): 3215-3221, 2017.
-
Nishio M, Murakami H, Horiike A, et al.: Phase I Study of Ceritinib (LDK378) in Japanese Patients with Advanced, Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase-Rearranged Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer or Other Tumors. J Thorac Oncol 10 (7): 1058-66, 2015.
-
Brivio E, Zwaan CM: ALK inhibition in two emblematic cases of pediatric inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor: Efficacy and side effects. Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (5): e27645, 2019.
-
Sulkowski JP, Raval MV, Browne M: Margin status and multimodal therapy in infantile fibrosarcoma. Pediatr Surg Int 29 (8): 771-6, 2013.
-
Hirschfeld R, Welch JJG, Harrison DJ, et al.: Two cases of humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy complicating infantile fibrosarcoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 64 (10): , 2017.
-
Kao YC, Fletcher CDM, Alaggio R, et al.: Recurrent BRAF Gene Fusions in a Subset of Pediatric Spindle Cell Sarcomas: Expanding the Genetic Spectrum of Tumors With Overlapping Features With Infantile Fibrosarcoma. Am J Surg Pathol 42 (1): 28-38, 2018.
-
Wegert J, Vokuhl C, Collord G, et al.: Recurrent intragenic rearrangements of EGFR and BRAF in soft tissue tumors of infants. Nat Commun 9 (1): 2378, 2018.
-
Orbach D, Rey A, Cecchetto G, et al.: Infantile fibrosarcoma: management based on the European experience. J Clin Oncol 28 (2): 318-23, 2010.
-
Orbach D, Brennan B, De Paoli A, et al.: Conservative strategy in infantile fibrosarcoma is possible: The European paediatric Soft tissue sarcoma Study Group experience. Eur J Cancer 57: 1-9, 2016.
-
Spunt SL, Million L, Coffin C: The nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma. In: Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds.: Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2015, pp 827-54.
-
Loh ML, Ahn P, Perez-Atayde AR, et al.: Treatment of infantile fibrosarcoma with chemotherapy and surgery: results from the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Children's Hospital, Boston. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 24 (9): 722-6, 2002.
-
Akyüz C, Küpeli S, Varan A, et al.: Infantile fibrosarcoma: retrospective analysis of eleven patients. Tumori 97 (2): 166-9, 2011 Mar-Apr.
-
Gallego S, Pericas N, Barber I, et al.: Infantile fibrosarcoma of the retroperitoneum: a site of unfavorable prognosis? Pediatr Hematol Oncol 28 (5): 451-3, 2011.
-
Parida L, Fernandez-Pineda I, Uffman JK, et al.: Clinical management of infantile fibrosarcoma: a retrospective single-institution review. Pediatr Surg Int 29 (7): 703-8, 2013.
-
Mody RJ, Wu YM, Lonigro RJ, et al.: Integrative Clinical Sequencing in the Management of Refractory or Relapsed Cancer in Youth. JAMA 314 (9): 913-25, 2015.
-
Wong V, Pavlick D, Brennan T, et al.: Evaluation of a Congenital Infantile Fibrosarcoma by Comprehensive Genomic Profiling Reveals an LMNA-NTRK1 Gene Fusion Responsive to Crizotinib. J Natl Cancer Inst 108 (1): , 2016.
-
Kummar S, Lassen UN: TRK Inhibition: A New Tumor-Agnostic Treatment Strategy. Target Oncol 13 (5): 545-556, 2018.
-
Drilon A, Laetsch TW, Kummar S, et al.: Efficacy of Larotrectinib in TRK Fusion-Positive Cancers in Adults and Children. N Engl J Med 378 (8): 731-739, 2018.
-
DuBois SG, Laetsch TW, Federman N, et al.: The use of neoadjuvant larotrectinib in the management of children with locally advanced TRK fusion sarcomas. Cancer 124 (21): 4241-4247, 2018.
-
Drilon A, Nagasubramanian R, Blake JF, et al.: A Next-Generation TRK Kinase Inhibitor Overcomes Acquired Resistance to Prior TRK Kinase Inhibition in Patients with TRK Fusion-Positive Solid Tumors. Cancer Discov 7 (9): 963-972, 2017.
-
Laetsch TW, DuBois SG, Mascarenhas L, et al.: Larotrectinib for paediatric solid tumours harbouring NTRK gene fusions: phase 1 results from a multicentre, open-label, phase 1/2 study. Lancet Oncol 19 (5): 705-714, 2018.
-
Yanagisawa R, Noguchi M, Fujita K, et al.: Preoperative Treatment With Pazopanib in a Case of Chemotherapy-Resistant Infantile Fibrosarcoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 63 (2): 348-51, 2016.
-
Madden NP, Spicer RD, Allibone EB, et al.: Spontaneous regression of neonatal fibrosarcoma. Br J Cancer Suppl 18: S72-5, 1992.
-
Evans HL: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: a clinicopathologic study of 33 cases with long-term follow-up. Am J Surg Pathol 35 (10): 1450-62, 2011.
-
Guillou L, Benhattar J, Gengler C, et al.: Translocation-positive low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: clinicopathologic and molecular analysis of a series expanding the morphologic spectrum and suggesting potential relationship to sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma: a study from the French Sarcoma Group. Am J Surg Pathol 31 (9): 1387-402, 2007.
-
Scheer M, Vokuhl C, Veit-Friedrich I, et al.: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: A report of the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS). Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (2): e28009, 2020.
-
Mohamed M, Fisher C, Thway K: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: Clinical, morphologic and genetic features. Ann Diagn Pathol 28: 60-67, 2017.
-
O'Sullivan MJ, Sirgi KE, Dehner LP: Low-grade fibrosarcoma (hyalinizing spindle cell tumor with giant rosettes) with pulmonary metastases at presentation: case report and review of the literature. Int J Surg Pathol 10 (3): 211-6, 2002.
-
Folpe AL, Lane KL, Paull G, et al.: Low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma and hyalinizing spindle cell tumor with giant rosettes: a clinicopathologic study of 73 cases supporting their identity and assessing the impact of high-grade areas. Am J Surg Pathol 24 (10): 1353-60, 2000.
-
Sargar K, Kao SC, Spunt SL, et al.: MRI and CT of Low-Grade Fibromyxoid Sarcoma in Children: A Report From Children's Oncology Group Study ARST0332. AJR Am J Roentgenol 205 (2): 414-20, 2015.
-
Maretty-Nielsen K, Baerentzen S, Keller J, et al.: Low-Grade Fibromyxoid Sarcoma: Incidence, Treatment Strategy of Metastases, and Clinical Significance of the FUS Gene. Sarcoma 2013: 256280, 2013.
-
Prieto-Granada C, Zhang L, Chen HW, et al.: A genetic dichotomy between pure sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma (SEF) and hybrid SEF/low-grade fibromyxoid sarcoma: a pathologic and molecular study of 18 cases. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 54 (1): 28-38, 2015.
-
Chew W, Benson C, Thway K, et al.: Clinical Characteristics and efficacy of chemotherapy in sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma. Med Oncol 35 (11): 138, 2018.
-
Arbajian E, Puls F, Antonescu CR, et al.: In-depth Genetic Analysis of Sclerosing Epithelioid Fibrosarcoma Reveals Recurrent Genomic Alterations and Potential Treatment Targets. Clin Cancer Res 23 (23): 7426-7434, 2017.
-
Pollock BH, Jenson HB, Leach CT, et al.: Risk factors for pediatric human immunodeficiency virus-related malignancy. JAMA 289 (18): 2393-9, 2003.
-
Kleinerman RA, Tucker MA, Abramson DH, et al.: Risk of soft tissue sarcomas by individual subtype in survivors of hereditary retinoblastoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 99 (1): 24-31, 2007.
-
Samuels BL, Chawla S, Patel S, et al.: Clinical outcomes and safety with trabectedin therapy in patients with advanced soft tissue sarcomas following failure of prior chemotherapy: results of a worldwide expanded access program study. Ann Oncol 24 (6): 1703-9, 2013.
-
Enzinger FM, Zhang RY: Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor presenting in children and young adults. An analysis of 65 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 12 (11): 818-26, 1988.
-
Black J, Coffin CM, Dehner LP: Fibrohistiocytic tumors and related neoplasms in children and adolescents. Pediatr Dev Pathol 15 (1 Suppl): 181-210, 2012.
-
Moosavi C, Jha P, Fanburg-Smith JC: An update on plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor and addition of 66 new cases from the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, in honor of Franz M. Enzinger, MD. Ann Diagn Pathol 11 (5): 313-9, 2007.
-
Billings SD, Folpe AL: Cutaneous and subcutaneous fibrohistiocytic tumors of intermediate malignancy: an update. Am J Dermatopathol 26 (2): 141-55, 2004.
-
Remstein ED, Arndt CA, Nascimento AG: Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor: clinicopathologic analysis of 22 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 23 (6): 662-70, 1999.
-
Salomao DR, Nascimento AG: Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor with systemic metastases: a case report. Am J Surg Pathol 21 (4): 469-76, 1997.
-
Redlich GC, Montgomery KD, Allgood GA, et al.: Plexiform fibrohistiocytic tumor with a clonal cytogenetic anomaly. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 108 (2): 141-3, 1999.
-
Luzar B, Calonje E: Cutaneous fibrohistiocytic tumours - an update. Histopathology 56 (1): 148-65, 2010.
-
Carli M, Ferrari A, Mattke A, et al.: Pediatric malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor: the Italian and German soft tissue sarcoma cooperative group. J Clin Oncol 23 (33): 8422-30, 2005.
-
Malbari F, Spira M, B Knight P, et al.: Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors in Neurofibromatosis: Impact of Family History. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 40 (6): e359-e363, 2018.
-
Agresta L, Salloum R, Hummel TR, et al.: Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor: Transformation in a patient with neurofibromatosis type 2. Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (2): e27520, 2019.
-
Zhang M, Wang Y, Jones S, et al.: Somatic mutations of SUZ12 in malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Nat Genet 46 (11): 1170-2, 2014.
-
Röhrich M, Koelsche C, Schrimpf D, et al.: Methylation-based classification of benign and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Acta Neuropathol 131 (6): 877-87, 2016.
-
Kaplan HG, Rostad S, Ross JS, et al.: Genomic Profiling in Patients With Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Reveals Multiple Pathways With Targetable Mutations. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 16 (8): 967-974, 2018.
-
Hagel C, Zils U, Peiper M, et al.: Histopathology and clinical outcome of NF1-associated vs. sporadic malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. J Neurooncol 82 (2): 187-92, 2007.
-
Zou C, Smith KD, Liu J, et al.: Clinical, pathological, and molecular variables predictive of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor outcome. Ann Surg 249 (6): 1014-22, 2009.
-
Okada K, Hasegawa T, Tajino T, et al.: Clinical relevance of pathological grades of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor: a multi-institution TMTS study of 56 cases in Northern Japan. Ann Surg Oncol 14 (2): 597-604, 2007.
-
Amirian ES, Goodman JC, New P, et al.: Pediatric and adult malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors: an analysis of data from the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results program. J Neurooncol 116 (3): 609-16, 2014.
-
Valentin T, Le Cesne A, Ray-Coquard I, et al.: Management and prognosis of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors: The experience of the French Sarcoma Group (GSF-GETO). Eur J Cancer 56: 77-84, 2016.
-
Høland M, Kolberg M, Danielsen SA, et al.: Inferior survival for patients with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors defined by aberrant TP53. Mod Pathol 31 (11): 1694-1707, 2018.
-
Krawczyk MA, Karpinsky G, Izycka-Swieszewska E, et al.: Immunohistochemical assessment of cyclin D1 and p53 is associated with survival in childhood malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor. Cancer Biomark 24 (3): 351-361, 2019.
-
Martin E, Coert JH, Flucke UE, et al.: Neurofibromatosis-associated malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors in children have a worse prognosis: A nationwide cohort study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (4): e28138, 2020.
-
Bergamaschi L, Bisogno G, Manzitti C, et al.: Salvage rates and prognostic factors after relapse in children and adolescents with malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer 65 (2): , 2018.
-
Ferrari A, Bisogno G, Macaluso A, et al.: Soft-tissue sarcomas in children and adolescents with neurofibromatosis type 1. Cancer 109 (7): 1406-12, 2007.
-
van Noesel MM, Orbach D, Brennan B, et al.: Outcome and prognostic factors in pediatric malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors: An analysis of the European Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Group (EpSSG) NRSTS-2005 prospective study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (10): e27833, 2019.
-
Okur FV, Oguz A, Karadeniz C, et al.: Malignant triton tumor of the pelvis in a 2-year-old boy. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 28 (3): 173-6, 2006.
-
Griffin BB, Chou PM, George D, et al.: Malignant Ectomesenchymoma: Series Analysis of a Histologically and Genetically Heterogeneous Tumor. Int J Surg Pathol 26 (3): 200-212, 2018.
-
Huang SC, Alaggio R, Sung YS, et al.: Frequent HRAS Mutations in Malignant Ectomesenchymoma: Overlapping Genetic Abnormalities With Embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma. Am J Surg Pathol 40 (7): 876-85, 2016.
-
Dantonello TM, Leuschner I, Vokuhl C, et al.: Malignant ectomesenchymoma in children and adolescents: report from the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS). Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (2): 224-9, 2013.
-
Rodriguez-Galindo C, Ramsey K, Jenkins JJ, et al.: Hemangiopericytoma in children and infants. Cancer 88 (1): 198-204, 2000.
-
Ferrari A, Casanova M, Bisogno G, et al.: Hemangiopericytoma in pediatric ages: a report from the Italian and German Soft Tissue Sarcoma Cooperative Group. Cancer 92 (10): 2692-8, 2001.
-
Bien E, Stachowicz-Stencel T, Godzinski J, et al.: Retrospective multi-institutional study on hemangiopericytoma in Polish children. Pediatr Int 51 (1): 19-24, 2009.
-
Weiss SW, Goldblum JR: Enzinger and Weiss's Soft Tissue Tumors. 5th ed. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby, 2008.
-
Fernandez-Pineda I, Parida L, Jenkins JJ, et al.: Childhood hemangiopericytoma: review of St Jude Children's Research Hospital. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 33 (5): 356-9, 2011.
-
Haller F, Knopf J, Ackermann A, et al.: Paediatric and adult soft tissue sarcomas with NTRK1 gene fusions: a subset of spindle cell sarcomas unified by a prominent myopericytic/haemangiopericytic pattern. J Pathol 238 (5): 700-10, 2016.
-
Doebele RC, Davis LE, Vaishnavi A, et al.: An Oncogenic NTRK Fusion in a Patient with Soft-Tissue Sarcoma with Response to the Tropomyosin-Related Kinase Inhibitor LOXO-101. Cancer Discov 5 (10): 1049-57, 2015.
-
Wiswell TE, Davis J, Cunningham BE, et al.: Infantile myofibromatosis: the most common fibrous tumor of infancy. J Pediatr Surg 23 (4): 315-8, 1988.
-
Chung EB, Enzinger FM: Infantile myofibromatosis. Cancer 48 (8): 1807-18, 1981.
-
Modi N: Congenital generalised fibromatosis. Arch Dis Child 57 (11): 881-2, 1982.
-
Levine E, Fréneaux P, Schleiermacher G, et al.: Risk-adapted therapy for infantile myofibromatosis in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 59 (1): 115-20, 2012.
-
Larralde M, Hoffner MV, Boggio P, et al.: Infantile myofibromatosis: report of nine patients. Pediatr Dermatol 27 (1): 29-33, 2010 Jan-Feb.
-
Cheung YH, Gayden T, Campeau PM, et al.: A recurrent PDGFRB mutation causes familial infantile myofibromatosis. Am J Hum Genet 92 (6): 996-1000, 2013.
-
Agaimy A, Bieg M, Michal M, et al.: Recurrent Somatic PDGFRB Mutations in Sporadic Infantile/Solitary Adult Myofibromas But Not in Angioleiomyomas and Myopericytomas. Am J Surg Pathol 41 (2): 195-203, 2017.
-
Gopal M, Chahal G, Al-Rifai Z, et al.: Infantile myofibromatosis. Pediatr Surg Int 24 (3): 287-91, 2008.
-
Weaver MS, Navid F, Huppmann A, et al.: Vincristine and Dactinomycin in Infantile Myofibromatosis With a Review of Treatment Options. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 37 (3): 237-41, 2015.
-
Sultan I, Rodriguez-Galindo C, Saab R, et al.: Comparing children and adults with synovial sarcoma in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program, 1983 to 2005: an analysis of 1268 patients. Cancer 115 (15): 3537-47, 2009.
-
Wang JG, Li NN: Primary cardiac synovial sarcoma. Ann Thorac Surg 95 (6): 2202-9, 2013.
-
Pappo AS, Fontanesi J, Luo X, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in children and adolescents: the St Jude Children's Research Hospital experience. J Clin Oncol 12 (11): 2360-6, 1994.
-
Ferrari A, De Salvo GL, Oberlin O, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in children and adolescents: a critical reappraisal of staging investigations in relation to the rate of metastatic involvement at diagnosis. Eur J Cancer 48 (9): 1370-5, 2012.
-
van de Rijn M, Barr FG, Collins MH, et al.: Absence of SYT-SSX fusion products in soft tissue tumors other than synovial sarcoma. Am J Clin Pathol 112 (1): 43-9, 1999.
-
Krsková L, Sumerauer D, Stejskalová E, et al.: A novel variant of SYT-SSX1 fusion gene in a case of spindle cell synovial sarcoma. Diagn Mol Pathol 16 (3): 179-83, 2007.
-
Su L, Sampaio AV, Jones KB, et al.: Deconstruction of the SS18-SSX fusion oncoprotein complex: insights into disease etiology and therapeutics. Cancer Cell 21 (3): 333-47, 2012.
-
Arnold MA, Arnold CA, Li G, et al.: A unique pattern of INI1 immunohistochemistry distinguishes synovial sarcoma from its histologic mimics. Hum Pathol 44 (5): 881-7, 2013.
-
Vlenterie M, Ho VK, Kaal SE, et al.: Age as an independent prognostic factor for survival of localised synovial sarcoma patients. Br J Cancer 113 (11): 1602-6, 2015.
-
Smolle MA, Parry M, Jeys L, et al.: Synovial sarcoma: Do children do better? Eur J Surg Oncol 45 (2): 254-260, 2019.
-
Okcu MF, Munsell M, Treuner J, et al.: Synovial sarcoma of childhood and adolescence: a multicenter, multivariate analysis of outcome. J Clin Oncol 21 (8): 1602-11, 2003.
-
Brecht IB, Ferrari A, Int-Veen C, et al.: Grossly-resected synovial sarcoma treated by the German and Italian Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Cooperative Groups: discussion on the role of adjuvant therapies. Pediatr Blood Cancer 46 (1): 11-7, 2006.
-
Stanelle EJ, Christison-Lagay ER, Healey JH, et al.: Pediatric and adolescent synovial sarcoma: multivariate analysis of prognostic factors and survival outcomes. Ann Surg Oncol 20 (1): 73-9, 2013.
-
Trassard M, Le Doussal V, Hacène K, et al.: Prognostic factors in localized primary synovial sarcoma: a multicenter study of 128 adult patients. J Clin Oncol 19 (2): 525-34, 2001.
-
Guillou L, Benhattar J, Bonichon F, et al.: Histologic grade, but not SYT-SSX fusion type, is an important prognostic factor in patients with synovial sarcoma: a multicenter, retrospective analysis. J Clin Oncol 22 (20): 4040-50, 2004.
-
Ferrari A, Gronchi A, Casanova M, et al.: Synovial sarcoma: a retrospective analysis of 271 patients of all ages treated at a single institution. Cancer 101 (3): 627-34, 2004.
-
Lagarde P, Przybyl J, Brulard C, et al.: Chromosome instability accounts for reverse metastatic outcomes of pediatric and adult synovial sarcomas. J Clin Oncol 31 (5): 608-15, 2013.
-
Stegmaier S, Leuschner I, Poremba C, et al.: The prognostic impact of SYT-SSX fusion type and histological grade in pediatric patients with synovial sarcoma treated according to the CWS (Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studie) trials. Pediatr Blood Cancer 64 (1): 89-95, 2017.
-
Scheer M, Dantonello T, Hallmen E, et al.: Primary Metastatic Synovial Sarcoma: Experience of the CWS Study Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 63 (7): 1198-206, 2016.
-
Orbach D, Mosseri V, Pissaloux D, et al.: Genomic complexity in pediatric synovial sarcomas (Synobio study): the European pediatric soft tissue sarcoma group (EpSSG) experience. Cancer Med 7 (4): 1384-1393, 2018.
-
Ferrari A, Chi YY, De Salvo GL, et al.: Surgery alone is sufficient therapy for children and adolescents with low-risk synovial sarcoma: A joint analysis from the European paediatric soft tissue sarcoma Study Group and the Children's Oncology Group. Eur J Cancer 78: 1-6, 2017.
-
McGrory JE, Pritchard DJ, Arndt CA, et al.: Nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas in children. The Mayo Clinic experience. Clin Orthop (374): 247-58, 2000.
-
Van Glabbeke M, van Oosterom AT, Oosterhuis JW, et al.: Prognostic factors for the outcome of chemotherapy in advanced soft tissue sarcoma: an analysis of 2,185 patients treated with anthracycline-containing first-line regimens--a European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Soft Tissue and Bone Sarcoma Group Study. J Clin Oncol 17 (1): 150-7, 1999.
-
Koscielniak E, Harms D, Henze G, et al.: Results of treatment for soft tissue sarcoma in childhood and adolescence: a final report of the German Cooperative Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study CWS-86. J Clin Oncol 17 (12): 3706-19, 1999.
-
Pappo AS, Devidas M, Jenkins J, et al.: Phase II trial of neoadjuvant vincristine, ifosfamide, and doxorubicin with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor support in children and adolescents with advanced-stage nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas: a Pediatric Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 23 (18): 4031-8, 2005.
-
Pappo AS, Rao BN, Jenkins JJ, et al.: Metastatic nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft-tissue sarcomas in children and adolescents: the St. Jude Children's Research Hospital experience. Med Pediatr Oncol 33 (2): 76-82, 1999.
-
Brennan B, Stevens M, Kelsey A, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in childhood and adolescence: a retrospective series of 77 patients registered by the Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group between 1991 and 2006. Pediatr Blood Cancer 55 (1): 85-90, 2010.
-
Ferrari A, Miceli R, Rey A, et al.: Non-metastatic unresected paediatric non-rhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas: results of a pooled analysis from United States and European groups. Eur J Cancer 47 (5): 724-31, 2011.
-
Raney RB: Synovial sarcoma in young people: background, prognostic factors, and therapeutic questions. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 27 (4): 207-11, 2005.
-
Orbach D, Mc Dowell H, Rey A, et al.: Sparing strategy does not compromise prognosis in pediatric localized synovial sarcoma: experience of the International Society of Pediatric Oncology, Malignant Mesenchymal Tumors (SIOP-MMT) Working Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 57 (7): 1130-6, 2011.
-
Ladenstein R, Treuner J, Koscielniak E, et al.: Synovial sarcoma of childhood and adolescence. Report of the German CWS-81 study. Cancer 71 (11): 3647-55, 1993.
-
Venkatramani R, Anderson JR, Million L, et al.: Risk-based treatment for synovial sarcoma in patients under 30 years of age: Children's Oncology Group study ARST0332. [Abstract] J Clin Oncol 33 (15 Suppl): A-10012, 2015. Also available online. Last accessed February 06, 2020.
-
Ferrari A, De Salvo GL, Brennan B, et al.: Synovial sarcoma in children and adolescents: the European Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group prospective trial (EpSSG NRSTS 2005). Ann Oncol 26 (3): 567-72, 2015.
-
Ferrari A, De Salvo GL, Dall'Igna P, et al.: Salvage rates and prognostic factors after relapse in children and adolescents with initially localised synovial sarcoma. Eur J Cancer 48 (18): 3448-55, 2012.
-
Scheer M, Dantonello T, Hallmen E, et al.: Synovial Sarcoma Recurrence in Children and Young Adults. Ann Surg Oncol 23 (Suppl 5): 618-626, 2016.
-
Dhakal S, Corbin KS, Milano MT, et al.: Stereotactic body radiotherapy for pulmonary metastases from soft-tissue sarcomas: excellent local lesion control and improved patient survival. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 82 (2): 940-5, 2012.
-
Chbani L, Guillou L, Terrier P, et al.: Epithelioid sarcoma: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical analysis of 106 cases from the French sarcoma group. Am J Clin Pathol 131 (2): 222-7, 2009.
-
Hornick JL, Dal Cin P, Fletcher CD: Loss of INI1 expression is characteristic of both conventional and proximal-type epithelioid sarcoma. Am J Surg Pathol 33 (4): 542-50, 2009.
-
Knutson SK, Warholic NM, Wigle TJ, et al.: Durable tumor regression in genetically altered malignant rhabdoid tumors by inhibition of methyltransferase EZH2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110 (19): 7922-7, 2013.
-
Guzzetta AA, Montgomery EA, Lyu H, et al.: Epithelioid sarcoma: one institution's experience with a rare sarcoma. J Surg Res 177 (1): 116-22, 2012.
-
Hawkins DS, Spunt SL, Skapek SX, et al.: Children's Oncology Group's 2013 blueprint for research: Soft tissue sarcomas. Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (6): 1001-8, 2013.
-
Casanova M, Ferrari A, Collini P, et al.: Epithelioid sarcoma in children and adolescents: a report from the Italian Soft Tissue Sarcoma Committee. Cancer 106 (3): 708-17, 2006.
-
Sparber-Sauer M, Koscielniak E, Vokuhl C, et al.: Epithelioid sarcoma in children, adolescents, and young adults: Localized, primary metastatic and relapsed disease. Treatment results of five Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS) trials and one registry. Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (9): e27879, 2019.
-
Spunt SL, Francotte N, De Salvo GL, et al.: Clinical features and outcomes of young patients with epithelioid sarcoma: an analysis from the Children's Oncology Group and the European paediatric soft tissue Sarcoma Study Group prospective clinical trials. Eur J Cancer 112: 98-106, 2019.
-
Italiano A, Soria JC, Toulmonde M, et al.: Tazemetostat, an EZH2 inhibitor, in relapsed or refractory B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma and advanced solid tumours: a first-in-human, open-label, phase 1 study. Lancet Oncol 19 (5): 649-659, 2018.
-
Orbach D, Brennan B, Casanova M, et al.: Paediatric and adolescent alveolar soft part sarcoma: A joint series from European cooperative groups. Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (11): 1826-32, 2013.
-
Ferrari A, Sultan I, Huang TT, et al.: Soft tissue sarcoma across the age spectrum: a population-based study from the Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results database. Pediatr Blood Cancer 57 (6): 943-9, 2011.
-
Wang HW, Qin XJ, Yang WJ, et al.: Alveolar soft part sarcoma of the oral and maxillofacial region: clinical analysis in a series of 18 patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol 119 (4): 396-401, 2015.
-
Kayton ML, Meyers P, Wexler LH, et al.: Clinical presentation, treatment, and outcome of alveolar soft part sarcoma in children, adolescents, and young adults. J Pediatr Surg 41 (1): 187-93, 2006.
-
Sparber-Sauer M, Seitz G, von Kalle T, et al.: Alveolar soft-part sarcoma: Primary metastatic disease and metastatic relapse occurring during long-term follow-up: Treatment results of four Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS) trials and one registry. Pediatr Blood Cancer 65 (12): e27405, 2018.
-
Flores RJ, Harrison DJ, Federman NC, et al.: Alveolar soft part sarcoma in children and young adults: A report of 69 cases. Pediatr Blood Cancer 65 (5): e26953, 2018.
-
Ladanyi M, Lui MY, Antonescu CR, et al.: The der(17)t(X;17)(p11;q25) of human alveolar soft part sarcoma fuses the TFE3 transcription factor gene to ASPL, a novel gene at 17q25. Oncogene 20 (1): 48-57, 2001.
-
Williams A, Bartle G, Sumathi VP, et al.: Detection of ASPL/TFE3 fusion transcripts and the TFE3 antigen in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue in a series of 18 cases of alveolar soft part sarcoma: useful diagnostic tools in cases with unusual histological features. Virchows Arch 458 (3): 291-300, 2011.
-
Lieberman PH, Brennan MF, Kimmel M, et al.: Alveolar soft-part sarcoma. A clinico-pathologic study of half a century. Cancer 63 (1): 1-13, 1989.
-
Casanova M, Ferrari A, Bisogno G, et al.: Alveolar soft part sarcoma in children and adolescents: A report from the Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Italian Cooperative Group. Ann Oncol 11 (11): 1445-9, 2000.
-
Pennacchioli E, Fiore M, Collini P, et al.: Alveolar soft part sarcoma: clinical presentation, treatment, and outcome in a series of 33 patients at a single institution. Ann Surg Oncol 17 (12): 3229-33, 2010.
-
Wilky BA, Trucco MM, Subhawong TK, et al.: Axitinib plus pembrolizumab in patients with advanced sarcomas including alveolar soft-part sarcoma: a single-centre, single-arm, phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol 20 (6): 837-848, 2019.
-
Roozendaal KJ, de Valk B, ten Velden JJ, et al.: Alveolar soft-part sarcoma responding to interferon alpha-2b. Br J Cancer 89 (2): 243-5, 2003.
-
Conde N, Cruz O, Albert A, et al.: Antiangiogenic treatment as a pre-operative management of alveolar soft-part sarcoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 57 (6): 1071-3, 2011.
-
Stacchiotti S, Negri T, Zaffaroni N, et al.: Sunitinib in advanced alveolar soft part sarcoma: evidence of a direct antitumor effect. Ann Oncol 22 (7): 1682-90, 2011.
-
Jagodzińska-Mucha P, Świtaj T, Kozak K, et al.: Long-term results of therapy with sunitinib in metastatic alveolar soft part sarcoma. Tumori 103 (3): 231-235, 2017.
-
Kummar S, Allen D, Monks A, et al.: Cediranib for metastatic alveolar soft part sarcoma. J Clin Oncol 31 (18): 2296-302, 2013.
-
Cohen JW, Widemann BC, Derdak J, et al.: Cediranib phase-II study in children with metastatic alveolar soft-part sarcoma (ASPS). Pediatr Blood Cancer 66 (12): e27987, 2019.
-
Judson I, Morden JP, Kilburn L, et al.: Cediranib in patients with alveolar soft-part sarcoma (CASPS): a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised, phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol 20 (7): 1023-1034, 2019.
-
Kim M, Kim TM, Keam B, et al.: A Phase II Trial of Pazopanib in Patients with Metastatic Alveolar Soft Part Sarcoma. Oncologist 24 (1): 20-e29, 2019.
-
Stacchiotti S, Mir O, Le Cesne A, et al.: Activity of Pazopanib and Trabectedin in Advanced Alveolar Soft Part Sarcoma. Oncologist 23 (1): 62-70, 2018.
-
Coindre JM, Hostein I, Terrier P, et al.: Diagnosis of clear cell sarcoma by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis of paraffin embedded tissues: clinicopathologic and molecular analysis of 44 patients from the French sarcoma group. Cancer 107 (5): 1055-64, 2006.
-
Meis-Kindblom JM: Clear cell sarcoma of tendons and aponeuroses: a historical perspective and tribute to the man behind the entity. Adv Anat Pathol 13 (6): 286-92, 2006.
-
Dim DC, Cooley LD, Miranda RN: Clear cell sarcoma of tendons and aponeuroses: a review. Arch Pathol Lab Med 131 (1): 152-6, 2007.
-
Blazer DG, Lazar AJ, Xing Y, et al.: Clinical outcomes of molecularly confirmed clear cell sarcoma from a single institution and in comparison with data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results registry. Cancer 115 (13): 2971-9, 2009.
-
Fujimura Y, Siddique H, Lee L, et al.: EWS-ATF-1 chimeric protein in soft tissue clear cell sarcoma associates with CREB-binding protein and interferes with p53-mediated trans-activation function. Oncogene 20 (46): 6653-9, 2001.
-
Hisaoka M, Ishida T, Kuo TT, et al.: Clear cell sarcoma of soft tissue: a clinicopathologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular analysis of 33 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 32 (3): 452-60, 2008.
-
Ferrari A, Casanova M, Bisogno G, et al.: Clear cell sarcoma of tendons and aponeuroses in pediatric patients: a report from the Italian and German Soft Tissue Sarcoma Cooperative Group. Cancer 94 (12): 3269-76, 2002.
-
Karita M, Tsuchiya H, Yamamoto N, et al.: Caffeine-potentiated chemotherapy for clear cell sarcoma: a report of five cases. Int J Clin Oncol 18 (1): 33-7, 2013.
-
Schöffski P, Wozniak A, Stacchiotti S, et al.: Activity and safety of crizotinib in patients with advanced clear-cell sarcoma with MET alterations: European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer phase II trial 90101 'CREATE'. Ann Oncol 28 (12): 3000-3008, 2017.
-
Tsuneyoshi M, Enjoji M, Iwasaki H, et al.: Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma--a clinicopathologic and electron microscopic study. Acta Pathol Jpn 31 (3): 439-47, 1981.
-
Hachitanda Y, Tsuneyoshi M, Daimaru Y, et al.: Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma in young children. Cancer 61 (12): 2521-6, 1988.
-
Hisaoka M, Ishida T, Imamura T, et al.: TFG is a novel fusion partner of NOR1 in extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 40 (4): 325-8, 2004.
-
Enzinger FM, Shiraki M: Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma. An analysis of 34 cases. Hum Pathol 3 (3): 421-35, 1972.
-
McGrory JE, Rock MG, Nascimento AG, et al.: Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma. Clin Orthop Relat Res (382): 185-90, 2001.
-
Drilon AD, Popat S, Bhuchar G, et al.: Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma: a retrospective review from 2 referral centers emphasizing long-term outcomes with surgery and chemotherapy. Cancer 113 (12): 3364-71, 2008.
-
Stacchiotti S, Pantaleo MA, Astolfi A, et al.: Activity of sunitinib in extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma. Eur J Cancer 50 (9): 1657-64, 2014.
-
Leuschner I, Radig K, Harms D: Desmoplastic small round cell tumor. Semin Diagn Pathol 13 (3): 204-12, 1996.
-
Kushner BH, LaQuaglia MP, Wollner N, et al.: Desmoplastic small round-cell tumor: prolonged progression-free survival with aggressive multimodality therapy. J Clin Oncol 14 (5): 1526-31, 1996.
-
Saab R, Khoury JD, Krasin M, et al.: Desmoplastic small round cell tumor in childhood: the St. Jude Children's Research Hospital experience. Pediatr Blood Cancer 49 (3): 274-9, 2007.
-
Wang LL, Perlman EJ, Vujanic GM, et al.: Desmoplastic small round cell tumor of the kidney in childhood. Am J Surg Pathol 31 (4): 576-84, 2007.
-
Hayes-Jordan A, LaQuaglia MP, Modak S: Management of desmoplastic small round cell tumor. Semin Pediatr Surg 25 (5): 299-304, 2016.
-
Arora VC, Price AP, Fleming S, et al.: Characteristic imaging features of desmoplastic small round cell tumour. Pediatr Radiol 43 (1): 93-102, 2013.
-
Gerald WL, Ladanyi M, de Alava E, et al.: Clinical, pathologic, and molecular spectrum of tumors associated with t(11;22)(p13;q12): desmoplastic small round-cell tumor and its variants. J Clin Oncol 16 (9): 3028-36, 1998.
-
Lal DR, Su WT, Wolden SL, et al.: Results of multimodal treatment for desmoplastic small round cell tumors. J Pediatr Surg 40 (1): 251-5, 2005.
-
Philippe-Chomette P, Kabbara N, Andre N, et al.: Desmoplastic small round cell tumors with EWS-WT1 fusion transcript in children and young adults. Pediatr Blood Cancer 58 (6): 891-7, 2012.
-
Sedig L, Geiger J, Mody R, et al.: Paratesticular desmoplastic small round cell tumors: A case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Blood Cancer 64 (12): , 2017.
-
Subbiah V, Lamhamedi-Cherradi SE, Cuglievan B, et al.: Multimodality Treatment of Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumor: Chemotherapy and Complete Cytoreductive Surgery Improve Patient Survival. Clin Cancer Res 24 (19): 4865-4873, 2018.
-
Schwarz RE, Gerald WL, Kushner BH, et al.: Desmoplastic small round cell tumors: prognostic indicators and results of surgical management. Ann Surg Oncol 5 (5): 416-22, 1998 Jul-Aug.
-
Goodman KA, Wolden SL, La Quaglia MP, et al.: Whole abdominopelvic radiotherapy for desmoplastic small round-cell tumor. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 54 (1): 170-6, 2002.
-
Osborne EM, Briere TM, Hayes-Jordan A, et al.: Survival and toxicity following sequential multimodality treatment including whole abdominopelvic radiotherapy for patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumor. Radiother Oncol 119 (1): 40-4, 2016.
-
Atallah V, Honore C, Orbach D, et al.: Role of Adjuvant Radiation Therapy After Surgery for Abdominal Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 95 (4): 1244-53, 2016.
-
Hayes-Jordan AA, Coakley BA, Green HL, et al.: Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumor Treated with Cytoreductive Surgery and Hyperthermic Intraperitoneal Chemotherapy: Results of a Phase 2 Trial. Ann Surg Oncol 25 (4): 872-877, 2018.
-
Scalabre A, Philippe-Chomette P, Passot G, et al.: Cytoreductive surgery and hyperthermic intraperitoneal perfusion with chemotherapy in children with peritoneal tumor spread: A French nationwide study over 14 years. Pediatr Blood Cancer 65 (4): , 2018.
-
Honoré C, Atallah V, Mir O, et al.: Abdominal desmoplastic small round cell tumor without extraperitoneal metastases: Is there a benefit for HIPEC after macroscopically complete cytoreductive surgery? PLoS One 12 (2): e0171639, 2017.
-
Cook RJ, Wang Z, Arora M, et al.: Clinical outcomes of patients with desmoplastic small round cell tumor of the peritoneum undergoing autologous HCT: a CIBMTR retrospective analysis. Bone Marrow Transplant 47 (11): 1455-8, 2012.
-
Tarek N, Hayes-Jordan A, Salvador L, et al.: Recurrent desmoplastic small round cell tumor responding to an mTOR inhibitor containing regimen. Pediatr Blood Cancer 65 (1): , 2018.
-
Kodet R, Newton WA, Sachs N, et al.: Rhabdoid tumors of soft tissues: a clinicopathologic study of 26 cases enrolled on the Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study. Hum Pathol 22 (7): 674-84, 1991.
-
Biegel JA, Zhou JY, Rorke LB, et al.: Germ-line and acquired mutations of INI1 in atypical teratoid and rhabdoid tumors. Cancer Res 59 (1): 74-9, 1999.
-
Eaton KW, Tooke LS, Wainwright LM, et al.: Spectrum of SMARCB1/INI1 mutations in familial and sporadic rhabdoid tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer 56 (1): 7-15, 2011.
-
Lee RS, Stewart C, Carter SL, et al.: A remarkably simple genome underlies highly malignant pediatric rhabdoid cancers. J Clin Invest 122 (8): 2983-8, 2012.
-
Sultan I, Qaddoumi I, Rodríguez-Galindo C, et al.: Age, stage, and radiotherapy, but not primary tumor site, affects the outcome of patients with malignant rhabdoid tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (1): 35-40, 2010.
-
Puri DR, Meyers PA, Kraus DH, et al.: Radiotherapy in the multimodal treatment of extrarenal extracranial malignant rhabdoid tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (1): 167-9, 2008.
-
Madigan CE, Armenian SH, Malogolowkin MH, et al.: Extracranial malignant rhabdoid tumors in childhood: the Childrens Hospital Los Angeles experience. Cancer 110 (9): 2061-6, 2007.
-
Bourdeaut F, Fréneaux P, Thuille B, et al.: Extra-renal non-cerebral rhabdoid tumours. Pediatr Blood Cancer 51 (3): 363-8, 2008.
-
Wetmore C, Boyett J, Li S, et al.: Alisertib is active as single agent in recurrent atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumors in 4 children. Neuro Oncol 17 (6): 882-8, 2015.
-
Martignoni G, Pea M, Reghellin D, et al.: Molecular pathology of lymphangioleiomyomatosis and other perivascular epithelioid cell tumors. Arch Pathol Lab Med 134 (1): 33-40, 2010.
-
Bissler JJ, McCormack FX, Young LR, et al.: Sirolimus for angiomyolipoma in tuberous sclerosis complex or lymphangioleiomyomatosis. N Engl J Med 358 (2): 140-51, 2008.
-
Davies DM, Johnson SR, Tattersfield AE, et al.: Sirolimus therapy in tuberous sclerosis or sporadic lymphangioleiomyomatosis. N Engl J Med 358 (2): 200-3, 2008.
-
Agaram NP, Sung YS, Zhang L, et al.: Dichotomy of Genetic Abnormalities in PEComas With Therapeutic Implications. Am J Surg Pathol 39 (6): 813-25, 2015.
-
Folpe A, Inwards C, eds.: Bone and Soft Tissue Pathology: A Volume in the Foundations in Diagnostic Pathology. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders Co, 2010.
-
Armah HB, Parwani AV: Perivascular epithelioid cell tumor. Arch Pathol Lab Med 133 (4): 648-54, 2009.
-
Alaggio R, Cecchetto G, Martignoni G, et al.: Malignant perivascular epithelioid cell tumor in children: description of a case and review of the literature. J Pediatr Surg 47 (6): e31-40, 2012.
-
Wagner AJ, Malinowska-Kolodziej I, Morgan JA, et al.: Clinical activity of mTOR inhibition with sirolimus in malignant perivascular epithelioid cell tumors: targeting the pathogenic activation of mTORC1 in tumors. J Clin Oncol 28 (5): 835-40, 2010.
-
Spunt SL, Million L, Anderson JR, et al.: Risk-based treatment for nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas (NRSTS) in patients under 30 years of age: Children's Oncology Group study ARST0332. [Abstract] J Clin Oncol 32 (Suppl 15): A-10008, 2014. Also available online. Last accessed February 06, 2020.
-
Laetsch TW, Roy A, Xu L, et al.: Undifferentiated Sarcomas in Children Harbor Clinically Relevant Oncogenic Fusions and Gene Copy-Number Alterations: A Report from the Children's Oncology Group. Clin Cancer Res 24 (16): 3888-3897, 2018.
-
Randall RL, Albritton KH, Ferney BJ, et al.: Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of soft tissue: an abandoned diagnosis. Am J Orthop 33 (12): 602-8, 2004.
-
Alaggio R, Collini P, Randall RL, et al.: Undifferentiated high-grade pleomorphic sarcomas in children: a clinicopathologic study of 10 cases and review of literature. Pediatr Dev Pathol 13 (3): 209-17, 2010 May-Jun.
-
Le Guellec S, Chibon F, Ouali M, et al.: Are peripheral purely undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcomas with MDM2 amplification dedifferentiated liposarcomas? Am J Surg Pathol 38 (3): 293-304, 2014.
-
Bjerkehagen B, Smeland S, Walberg L, et al.: Radiation-induced sarcoma: 25-year experience from the Norwegian Radium Hospital. Acta Oncol 47 (8): 1475-82, 2008.
-
Daw NC, Billups CA, Pappo AS, et al.: Malignant fibrous histiocytoma and other fibrohistiocytic tumors in pediatric patients: the St. Jude Children's Research Hospital experience. Cancer 97 (11): 2839-47, 2003.
-
Coffin CM, Dehner LP: Vascular tumors in children and adolescents: a clinicopathologic study of 228 tumors in 222 patients. Pathol Annu 28 Pt 1: 97-120, 1993.
-
Mehrabi A, Kashfi A, Fonouni H, et al.: Primary malignant hepatic epithelioid hemangioendothelioma: a comprehensive review of the literature with emphasis on the surgical therapy. Cancer 107 (9): 2108-21, 2006.
-
Haro A, Saitoh G, Tamiya S, et al.: Four-year natural clinical course of pulmonary epithelioid hemangioendothelioma without therapy. Thorac Cancer 6 (4): 544-7, 2015.
-
Sardaro A, Bardoscia L, Petruzzelli MF, et al.: Epithelioid hemangioendothelioma: an overview and update on a rare vascular tumor. Oncol Rev 8 (2): 259, 2014.
-
Dong K, Wang XX, Feng JL, et al.: Pathological characteristics of liver biopsies in eight patients with hepatic epithelioid hemangioendothelioma. Int J Clin Exp Pathol 8 (9): 11015-23, 2015.
-
Adams DM, Hammill A: Other vascular tumors. Semin Pediatr Surg 23 (4): 173-7, 2014.
-
Xiao Y, Wang C, Song Y, et al.: Primary epithelioid hemangioendothelioma of the kidney: the first case report in a child and literature review. Urology 82 (4): 925-7, 2013.
-
Reich S, Ringe H, Uhlenberg B, et al.: Epithelioid hemangioendothelioma of the lung presenting with pneumonia and heart rhythm disturbances in a teenage girl. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 32 (4): 274-6, 2010.
-
Cournoyer E, Al-Ibraheemi A, Engel E, et al.: Clinical characterization and long-term outcomes in pediatric epithelioid hemangioendothelioma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 67 (2): e28045, 2020.
-
Daller JA, Bueno J, Gutierrez J, et al.: Hepatic hemangioendothelioma: clinical experience and management strategy. J Pediatr Surg 34 (1): 98-105; discussion 105-6, 1999.
-
Ackermann O, Fabre M, Franchi S, et al.: Widening spectrum of liver angiosarcoma in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 53 (6): 615-9, 2011.
-
Stacchiotti S, Provenzano S, Dagrada G, et al.: Sirolimus in Advanced Epithelioid Hemangioendothelioma: A Retrospective Case-Series Analysis from the Italian Rare Cancer Network Database. Ann Surg Oncol 23 (9): 2735-44, 2016.
-
Semenisty V, Naroditsky I, Keidar Z, et al.: Pazopanib for metastatic pulmonary epithelioid hemangioendothelioma-a suitable treatment option: case report and review of anti-angiogenic treatment options. BMC Cancer 15: 402, 2015.
-
Raheja A, Suri A, Singh S, et al.: Multimodality management of a giant skull base hemangioendothelioma of the sphenopetroclival region. J Clin Neurosci 22 (9): 1495-8, 2015.
-
Ahmad N, Adams DM, Wang J, et al.: Hepatic epithelioid hemangioendothelioma in a patient with hemochromatosis. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 12 (9): 1203-7, 2014.
-
Otte JB, Zimmerman A: The role of liver transplantation for pediatric epithelioid hemangioendothelioma. Pediatr Transplant 14 (3): 295-7, 2010.
-
Cioffi A, Reichert S, Antonescu CR, et al.: Angiosarcomas and other sarcomas of endothelial origin. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 27 (5): 975-88, 2013.
-
Jeng MR, Fuh B, Blatt J, et al.: Malignant transformation of infantile hemangioma to angiosarcoma: response to chemotherapy with bevacizumab. Pediatr Blood Cancer 61 (11): 2115-7, 2014.
-
Dehner LP, Ishak KG: Vascular tumors of the liver in infants and children. A study of 30 cases and review of the literature. Arch Pathol 92 (2): 101-11, 1971.
-
Ferrari A, Casanova M, Bisogno G, et al.: Malignant vascular tumors in children and adolescents: a report from the Italian and German Soft Tissue Sarcoma Cooperative Group. Med Pediatr Oncol 39 (2): 109-14, 2002.
-
Deyrup AT, Miettinen M, North PE, et al.: Pediatric cutaneous angiosarcomas: a clinicopathologic study of 10 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 35 (1): 70-5, 2011.
-
Elliott P, Kleinschmidt I: Angiosarcoma of the liver in Great Britain in proximity to vinyl chloride sites. Occup Environ Med 54 (1): 14-8, 1997.
-
Lezama-del Valle P, Gerald WL, Tsai J, et al.: Malignant vascular tumors in young patients. Cancer 83 (8): 1634-9, 1998.
-
Fata F, O'Reilly E, Ilson D, et al.: Paclitaxel in the treatment of patients with angiosarcoma of the scalp or face. Cancer 86 (10): 2034-7, 1999.
-
Lahat G, Dhuka AR, Hallevi H, et al.: Angiosarcoma: clinical and molecular insights. Ann Surg 251 (6): 1098-106, 2010.
-
Orlando G, Adam R, Mirza D, et al.: Hepatic hemangiosarcoma: an absolute contraindication to liver transplantation--the European Liver Transplant Registry experience. Transplantation 95 (6): 872-7, 2013.
-
Sanada T, Nakayama H, Irisawa R, et al.: Clinical outcome and dose volume evaluation in patients who undergo brachytherapy for angiosarcoma of the scalp and face. Mol Clin Oncol 6 (3): 334-340, 2017.
-
Dickson MA, D'Adamo DR, Keohan ML, et al.: Phase II Trial of Gemcitabine and Docetaxel with Bevacizumab in Soft Tissue Sarcoma. Sarcoma 2015: 532478, 2015.
-
Scott MT, Portnow LH, Morris CG, et al.: Radiation therapy for angiosarcoma: the 35-year University of Florida experience. Am J Clin Oncol 36 (2): 174-80, 2013.
-
North PE, Waner M, Mizeracki A, et al.: A unique microvascular phenotype shared by juvenile hemangiomas and human placenta. Arch Dermatol 137 (5): 559-70, 2001.
-
Boye E, Yu Y, Paranya G, et al.: Clonality and altered behavior of endothelial cells from hemangiomas. J Clin Invest 107 (6): 745-52, 2001.
-
Ravi V, Patel S: Vascular sarcomas. Curr Oncol Rep 15 (4): 347-55, 2013.
-
Grassia KL, Peterman CM, Iacobas I, et al.: Clinical case series of pediatric hepatic angiosarcoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 64 (11): , 2017.
